EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
The people differ with respect to their physical and psychological characteristics. The uniqueness of individuals results from the interaction of their genetic endowments and environmental demands. In this world, there are millions of different species of organisms differing in a variety of ways. Biologists believe that these species were not always like this; they have evolved to their present form from their pre-existing forms. It Is estimated that the characteristics of modern human beings developed some 2,00,000 years ago as a result of their continuous interaction with the environment.
Evolution refers to gradual and orderly biological changes that result in a species from their pre-existing forms in response to the changing adaptational demands of their environment. Physiological as well as behavioural changes that occur due to the evolutionary process are so slow that they become visible after hundreds of generations.
Evolution occurs through the process of natural selection. You know that members of each species vary greatly in their physical structure and behaviour. The traits or characteristics that are associated with a high rate of survival and reproduction of those species are the most likely ones to be passed on to the next generations. When repeated generation after generation, natural selection leads to the evolution of new species that are more effectively adapted to their particular environment. This is very similar to the selective breeding of horses or other animals these days. Breeders select the fittest and the fastest male and female horses from their stock, and promote them for selective breeding so that they can get the fittest horses.
Fitness Is the ability of an organism to survive and contribute its genes to the next generation.
Three important features of modern human beings differentiate them from their ancestors:
(i) a bigger and developed brain with increased capacity for cognitive behaviour like perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving, and use of language for communication.
(ii) ability to walk upright on Two legs, and
(iii) a free hand with a workable opposing thumb.
These features have been with us for several thousand years. Our behaviours are highly complex and more developed than those of other species because we have got a large and highly developed brain. Human brain development is evidenced by two facts. Firstly, the weight of the brain is about 2.35 percent of the total body weight, and it is the highest among all species (in elephants it is 0.2 per cent). Secondly,the human cerebrum is more evolved than other parts of the brain.
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ROOTS
An important determinant of our behaviour is the biological structures that we have inherited from our ancestors in the form of a developed body and brain. The importance of such a biological basis becomes obvious when we observe cases in which brain cells have been destroyed by any disease, use of drugs or an accident. Such cases develop various kinds of physical and behavioural disabilities. Many children develop mental retardation and other abnormal symptoms due to transmission of a faulty gene from the parents. As human beings, we not only share a biological system, but also certain cultural systems. These systems are quite varied across human populations. All of us negotiate our lives with the culture in which we are born and brought up. Culture provides us with different experiences and opportunities of learning by putting us in a variety of situations or placing different demands on our lives. Such experiences, opportunities and demands also influence our behaviour considerably. These influences become more potent and visible as we move from infancy to later years of life. Thus, besides biological bases.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EVOLUTION
Neurons
Neuron is the basic unit of our nervous system. Neurons are specialised cells, which possess the unique property of converting various forms of stimuli into electrical impulses.
They are also specialised for reception, conduction and transmission of information in the form of electrochemical signals. They receive information from sense organs or from other adjacent neurons, carry them to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and bring motor information from the central nervous system to the motor organs(muscles and glands).
Nearly 12 billion neurons are found in the human nervous system. They are of many types and vary considerably in shape, size,chemical composition, and function.
Despite These differences, they share three fundamental components, i.e. soma,dendrites, and axon.
The soma or cell body is the main body of the nerve cell. It contains the nucleus of the cell as well as other structures common to living cells of all types. The genetic material of the neuron is stored inside the nucleus and it becomes actively engaged during cell reproduction and protein synthesis.
The soma also contains most of the cytoplasm (cell-fluid) of the neuron.
Dendrites are the branch-like specialised structures emanating from the soma. They are the receiving ends of a neuron.Their function is to receive the incoming neural impulses from adjacent neurons or directly from the sense organs. On dendrites are found specialised receptors, which become a active signal when the signal arrives in electrochemical or biochemical form. The received signals are passed onto soma and then to axon so that the information is relayed to another neurons to muscles.
The axon conducts the information along its length, which can be several feet in the spinal cord and less than a millimeter in the brain. At the terminal point the axon branches into small structures, called terminal buttons.
These buttons have the capability for transmitting information to another neuron, gland and muscle. Neurons generally conduct information in one direction,that is, from the dendrites through soma and axon to the terminal buttons.
The conduction of information from one place to another in the nervous system is done through nerves, which are bundles of axons.
Nerves are mainly of two types:
sensory
Motor
Sensory nerves, also called afferent nerves, carry information from sense organs to the central nervous system. On the other hand,motor nerves, also called efferent nerves, carry information from the central nervous system to muscles or glands. A motor nerve conducts neural commands which direct, control, and regulates our movements and other responses.There are some mixed nerves also, but sensory and motor fibers in these nerves are separate.
NERVE IMPULSE
Impulse Information travels within the nervous system in the form of a nerve impulse. When stimulus energy comes into contact with receptors,electrical changes in the nerve potential start. Nerve potential is a sudden change in the electrical potential of the surface of a neuron. When the stimulus energy is relatively weak,the electrical changes are so small that the nerve impulse is not generated, and we don't feel that stimulus. If the stimulus energy is relatively strong, electrical impulses are generated and conducted towards the central nervous system. The strength of the nerve impulse, however, does not depend on the strength of the stimulus that started the impulse. The nerve fibers work according to the “all or none principle”, which means that they either respond completely or do not respond at all. The strength of the nerve impulse remains constant along the nerve fiber.
Synapse
Information is transmitted from one place to another within the nervous system in the form of a neural impulse. A single neuron can carry a neural impulse up to a distance covered by the length of its axon. When the impulse is to be conducted to a distant part of the body,a number of neurons participate in the process.In this process, one neuron faithfully relays the information to a neighboring neuron. The Axon tip of a preceding neuron make functional connections or synapse with dendrites of the other neuron. A neuron is never physically connected with another neuron; rather there is a small gap between the two. This gap is known as synaptic cleft.The neural impulse from one neuron is transmitted by a complex synaptic transmission process to another neuron. The Conduction of neural impulse in the axon is electrochemical, while the nature of synaptic transmission is chemical. The Chemical substances are known as neurotransmitters.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM BEHAVIOUR AND EXPERIENCE
Since our biological structures play an important role in organisation and execution of behaviour, we shall look at these structures in some detail. In particular, you will read about the nervous system and the endocrine system, which work together in giving a shape to human behaviour and experience.The Nervous System Human nervous system is the most complex and most developed of all living creatures.Though the nervous system functions as a whole, for the ease of study,
We can divide the central Nervous system into many parts depending on its location or function.
Based on location, the nervous system can be divided into two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous system(PNS)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The part of the nervous system found inside the hard bony cases (cranium and backbone) is classified as CNS. Brain and spinal cord are the organs of this system.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Parts of the nervous system other than the central nervous system are placed in the PNS. PNScan be further classified into Somatic and Autonomic nervous system. Somatic nervous system is concerned with voluntary actions,while the autonomic nervous system performs functions on which we have no voluntary control.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS is composed of all the neurons and nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
The PNS is divided into SomaticNervous System and Autonomic NervousSystem. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into Sympathetic andParasympathetic systems. The PNS provides information to the CNS from sensory receptors(eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and relays back motor commands from the brain to the muscles and glands.
THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
This system consists of two types of nerves,called cranial nerves and spinal nerves. There Are twelve sets of cranial nerves which either emanate from or reach different locations of the brain.
There are three types of cranial nerves - sensory, motor, and mixed. Sensory Nerves collect sensory information from receptors of the head region (vision, audition,smell, taste, touch, etc.) and carry them to the brain. The motor nerves carry motor impulses originating from the brain to muscles of the head region.
For example, movements of the eyeballs are controlled by motor cranial nerves. Mixed nerves have both sensory and motor fibers, which conduct sensory and motor information to and from the brain.
There are thirty one sets of spinal nerves coming out of or reaching to the spinal cord. Each set has sensory and motor nerves.
Spinal Nerves have two functions. The sensory fibers of the spinal nerves collect sensory information from all over the body (except the head region)and send them to the spinal cord from where they are then carried out to the brain. In Addition, motor impulses coming down from the brain are sent to the muscles by the motor fibers of the spinal nerves.
The Autonomic Nervous System
This system governs activities which are normally not under direct control of individuals. It controls such internal functions as breathing, blood circulation, salivation,stomach contraction, and emotional reactions. These activities of the autonomic system are under the control of different functions of the brain. The Autonomic Nervous System has two divisions:
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division.
Although the effect of one division is opposite to the effect of the other, both work together to maintain a state of equilibrium. The sympathetic division deals with emergencies when the action must be quick and powerful, such as in situations of fight or flight. During this period, the digestion stops, blood flows from internal organs to the muscles, and breathing rate, oxygen supply,heart rate, and blood sugar level increases.The Parasympathetic division is mainly concerned with conservation of energy. It Monitors the routine functions of the internal system of the body. When the emergency isover, the parasympathetic division takes over;it decelerates the sympathetic activation and calms down the individual to a normal condition. As a result all body functions like heart beat, breathing, and blood flow return to their normal levels.
The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is the centre of all neural activity. It integrates all incoming sensory information, performs all kinds of cognitive activities, and issues motor commands to muscles and glands.
The CNScom comprises of the
(a)brain and
(b) spinal cord.
Now we will discuss the functions of the major parts of the brain and for what behaviours is each part responsible.
The Brain and Behaviour
It is believed that the human brain has evolved over millions of years from the brains of lower animals, and this evolutionary process still continues. We can examine the levels of structures in the brain, from its earliest to the most recent form in the process of evolution.The limbic system, brainstem and cerebellum are the oldest structures, while CerebralCortex is the latest development in the course of evolution. An adult brain weighs about1.36 kg and contains around 100 billion neurons. However, the most amazing thing about the brain is not its number of neurons but its ability to guide human behaviour and thought. The brain is organised into structures and regions that perform specific function.Brain scanning reveals that while some mental functions are distributed among different areas of the brain, many activities are also localised. For example, the occipital lobe of the brain is a specialised area for vision.
Structure of the Brain
For the convenience of study, the brain can be divided into three parts: Hindbrain,Midbrain and Forebrain.
Hindbrain
This part of the brain consists of the following structures:
Medulla Oblongata : It is the lowest part of the brain that exists in continuation of the spinal cord.It contains neural centres, which language regulate basic life supporting activities like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. This is why medulla is known as the vital centre of the brain. It has some centres of autonomic activities also.
Pons :It is connected with medulla on one side and with the midbrain on the other. A nucleus (neural centre) of pons receives auditory signals relayed by our ears. It is believed that pons are involved in sleep mechanisms, particularly the sleep characterized by dreaming. It contains nuclei affecting respiratory movement and facial expressions also.
Cerebellum : This highly developed part of the hindbrain can be easily recognised by its wrinkled surface. It maintains and controls posture and equilibrium of the body. Its main function is coordination of muscular movements. Though the motor commands originate in the forebrain, the cerebellum receives and coordinates them to relay to the muscles. It also stores the memory of movement patterns so that we do not have to concentrate on how to walk, dance, or ride a bicycle.
Midbrain
The midbrain is relatively small in size and it connects the hindbrain with the forebrain. A few neural centres related to some special reflexes and visual and auditory sensations are found here. An important part of the midbrain,known as Reticular Activating System (RAS),is responsible for our arousal. It makes us alert and active by regulating sensory inputs.It also helps us in selecting information from the environment. ForebrainIt is considered to be the most important part of the brain because it performs all cognitive,emotional, and motor activities.
We will discuss four major parts of the forebrain:-
hypothalamus thalamus, limbic system, and cerebellum
Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is one of the smallest structures in the brain but plays a vital role in our behaviour. It regulatesphysiological processes involved in emotionaland motivational behaviour, such as eating,drinking, sleeping, temperature regulation,and sexual arousal. It also regulates and controls the internal environment of the body(e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, temperature)and regulates the secretion of hormones from various endocrine glands.Thalamus :It consists of an egg-shaped cluster of neurons situated on the ventral (upper) side of the hypothalamus. It is like a relay station that receives all incoming sensory signals from sense organs and sends them to appropriate parts of the cortex for processing. It also receives all outgoing motor signals coming from the cortex and sends them to appropriate parts of the body.
The Limbic System : This system is composed of a group of structures that form part of the old mammalian brain. It helps in maintaining internal homeostasis by regulating body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level. It has close links with the hypothalamus.Besides hypothalamus, the limbic system comprises the Hippocampus and Amygdala.The hippocampus plays an important role in long-term memory. The amygdala plays an important role in emotional behaviour.
The Cerebrum : Also known as CerebralCortex, this part regulates all higher levels of cognitive functions, such as attention,perception, learning, memory, language behaviour, reasoning, and problem solving.The cerebrum makes two-third of the total mass of the human brain. Its thickness varies from 1.5 mm to 4 mm, which covers the entire surface of the brain and contains neurons,neural nets, and bundles of axons. All these make it possible for us to perform organised actions and create images, symbols,associations, and memories.
The cerebrum is divided into two symmetrical halves, called the Cerebral Hemispheres. Although the two hemispheres appear identical, functionally one hemisphere usually dominates the other. For example, the left hemisphere usually controls language behaviour. The right hemisphere is usually specialised to deal with images, spatial relationships, and pattern recognition. These Two hemispheres are connected by a white bundle of myelinated fibers, called Corpus Callosum that carries messages back and forth between the hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex has also been divided into four lobes - Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe,Temporal lobe, and Occipital lobe. The Frontal Lobe is mainly concerned with cognitive functions, such as attention, thinking,memory, learning, and reasoning, but it also exerts inhibitory effects on autonomic and emotional responses.
The Parietal lobe is mainly concerned with cutaneous sensations and their coordination with visual and auditory sensations.
The Temporal lobe is primarily concerned with the processing of auditory information. Memory for symbolic sounds and words resides here. Understanding of speech and written language depends on this lobe.
The Occipital lobe is mainly concerned with visual information. It is believed that interpretation of visual impulses, memory for visual stimuli and colour visual orientation is performed by this lobe.
Physiologists and psychologists have tried to identify specific functions associated with specific brain structures. They have found that no activity of the brain is performed only by a single part of the cortex. Normally, other parts are involved, but it is also correct that there is some localisation of functions, i.e. for a particular function, a particular part of the cortex plays a more important role than the other parts. For example, if you are driving a car, you see the road and other vehicles by the function of your occipital lobe, hear the horns by the function of your temporal lobe,do many motor activities controlled by parietal lobe, and make decisions by the help of frontal lobe. The whole brain acts as a well coordinated unit in which different parts contribute their function separately.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a long rope-like collection of nerve fibers, which run along the full length inside the spine. Its one end is connected with the medulla of the brain and another is free at the tail end. Its structure all along its length is similar. The butterfly shaped mass of greymatter present in the centre of the spinal cord contains association neurons and other cells. Surrounding the grey matter is the whitematter of the spinal cord, which is composed of the ascending and descending neural tracts. These tracts (collections of nerve fibers)connect the brain with the rest of the body. The spinal cord plays the role of a huge cable,which exchanges innumerable messages with the CNS. There are two main functions of the spinal cord. Firstly, it carries sensory impulses coming from the lower parts of the body to the brain; and motor impulses originating from the brain to all over the body. Secondly, it performs some simple reflexes that do not involve the brain. Simple reflexes involve a sensory nerve, a motor nerve, and the association neurons of the grey matter of the spinal cord.
Reflex Action
A reflex is an involuntary action that occurs very quickly after its specific kind of stimulation. The reflex action takes place automatically without conscious decision of the brain. Reflex actions are inherited in our nervous system through evolutionary processes, for example, the eye-blinking reflex. Whenever any object suddenly comes near our eyes, our eyelids blink. Reflexes serve to protect the organism from potential threats and preserve life. Though several reflex actions are performed by our nervous system, the familiar reflexes are the knee jerk, pupil constriction, pulling away from very hot or cold objects, breathing and stretching. Most reflex actions are carried out by the spinal cord and do not involve the brain.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine glands play a crucial role in our development and behaviour. They secrete specific chemical substances, called hormones, which control some of our behaviors These glands are called ductless glands or endocrine glands, because they don't have any duct (unlike other glands) to send their secretions to specific places. Hormones Are circulated by the bloodstream. The Endocrine glands form the endocrine system of the body. This system works in conjunction with different parts of the nervous system. The Whole system is thus known as the neuroendocrine system.
Pituitary Gland
This gland is situated within the cranium just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is divided into anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary is directly connected with hypothalamus, which regulates its hormonal secretions. The pituitary gland secretes the growth hormone and many other hormones, which direct and regulate the secretions of many other endocrine glands found in our body. This is why the pituitary gland is known as the "master gland".
Some hormones are secreted at a steady rate throughout life, while others are secreted at an appropriate time in life. For example,the growth hormone is released steadily through childhood, with some spurt during adolescence, but gonadotropic hormones are secreted at the age of puberty, whichstimulates the secretion of appropriate sexhormones among boys and girls. As a result,primary and secondary sexual changes takeplace.
Thyroid Gland
This gland is located in the neck. It produces thyroxine that influences the body’s metabolic rate. Optimum amount of thyroxine is secreted and regulated by an anterior pituitary hormone, the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.(TSH). The steady secretion of this hormone maintains the production of energy,consumption of oxygen and elimination of wastes in body cells. On the other hand,underproduction of thyroxine leads to physical and psychological lethargy. If thyroid gland is removed in young animals, their growth is stunted and they fail to develop sexually. Adrenal Gland
This gland is located above each kidney. It has two parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, each secreting different hormones.The secretion of adrenal cortex is controlled and regulated by Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) secreted by anterior pituitary gland. When the secretion of adrenal cortex goes down, anterior pituitary gets the message and increases the secretion of ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete more hormones.The adrenal cortex secretes a group of hormones, called corticoids, which are utilised by the body for a number of physiological purposes, e.g., regulation of minerals in the body, particularly sodium,potassium, and chlorides. Any disturbance in its function seriously affects the functions of the nervous system.
Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones,namely epinephrine and norepinephrine(also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline,respectively). Sympathetic activation, such as increased heart rate, oxygen consumption, metabolic rate, muscle tone, etc., take place through the secretion of these two hormones.
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
stimulate the hypothalamus, which prolongs emotions in an individual even when the stressor has been removed. Pancreas The pancreas, lying near the stomach, has a primary role in digestion of food, but it also secretes a hormone known as insulin. Insulin Helps the liver to break down glucose for use by the body or for storage as glycogen by the liver. When insulin is not secreted in properamount, people develop a disease, called diabetesmellitusor simply diabetes. Gonads
Gonads refer to testes in males and ovaries in females. The hormones secreted by these glands control and regulate sexual behavioursand reproductive functions of males andfemales. Secretion of hormones of these glands is initiated, maintained and regulated by a hormone, called gonadotrophic hormone(GTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary. The secretion of GTH starts at the age of puberty(10 to 14 years in human beings) and stimulates gonads to secrete hormones, whichin turn stimulates development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
The ovaries in females produce estrogen and progesterone. Estrogens guide the sexual development of the female body. Primary sexual characteristics related with reproduction, such as development of ovumor egg cell, appear on every 28 days or so inthe ovary of a sexually mature female.
Secondary sexual characteristics, such asbreast development, rounded body contours,widened pelvis, etc., also depend on thishormone. Progesterone has no role in sexualdevelopment. Its function is related with preparation of the uterus for the possible reception of fertilised ovum.The hormonal system for reproductive behaviour is much simpler in the malebecause there is no cyclic pattern. Testes inmales produce sperm continuously and secrete male sex hormones called androgens.The major androgen is testosterone.Testosterone prompts secondary sexual changes such as physical changes, growth offacial and body hairs, deepening of voice, andincrease in sexually oriented behaviour.Increased aggression and other behaviours arealso linked with testosterone production.The normal functioning of all hormones is crucial to our behavioural well-being. Withouta balanced secretion of hormones, the body would be unable to maintain the state of internal equilibrium. Without the increased secretion of hormones during times of stress, we would not be able to react effectively to potential dangers in our environment. Finally, without the secretion of hormones at specific times in our lives, we would not be able to grow, mature and reproduce.
HEREDITY : GENES AND BEHAVIOUR
We inherit characteristics from our parents in the form of genes. A child at birth possesses a unique combination of genes received from both parents. This inheritance provides a distinct biological blueprint and timetable for an individual’s development. The study of the inheritance of physical and psychological characteristics from ancestors is referred toas genetics. The child begins life as a single zygote cell (mother’s ovum fertilised by father’ssperm). Zygote is a tiny cell with a nucleus in its center containing chromosomes. These Chromosomes with all genes are inherited from each parent in equal numbers.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the hereditary elements of the body. They are threadlike-paired structures in the nucleus of each cell. The Number of chromosomes per nucleus is distinctive and is constant for each living organism. The gametic cells (sperm and ovum)have 23 chromosomes but not in pairs. A new generation results from the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell.At the time of conception, the organism inherits 46 chromosomes from parents, 23from the mother and 23 from the father. Each Of these chromosomes contains thousands of genes. However, the sperm cell (fathers’) differs from the egg cell (mother’s) in one important respect. The 23rd chromosome of the sperm cell can be either the capital X or Y type of the English alphabet. If the X type sperm fertilises the egg cell, the fertilised egg will have an XX 23rd chromosome pair, and the child will be a female. On the other hand, if a Y type sperm fertilises the egg, the 23rd chromosome pair will be XY, and the child will be a male.
Chromosomes are composed mainly of a substance called Deoxyribonucleic Acid(DNA). Our genes are composed chiefly of DNAmolecules. The two genes that control the development of each trait are situated at the same locus, one on each chromosome of a particular pair. The exception is the sexchromosomes, i.e. the pair of chromosomesthat determines an individuales sex.
GENES
Every chromosome stores thousands of genetic commands in the form of genes. These genes dictate much of the course of an organism's development. They contain instructions for the production of specific proteins, which regulates the body’s physiological processes and the expression of phenotypic traits. The observable traits of an organism are called phenotype (e.g.,body built, physical strength, intelligence and other behavioural traits). The traits, which can be passed onto the offspring through genetic material are called its genotype. All biological and psychological characteristics that a modern man possesses are the result of genotype inheritance with phenotypic variations. A given gene can exist in several different forms. Change of a gene from one form to another is called mutation. The type of mutation that occurs spontaneously in nature provides variation in genotypes and permits the evolution of new species. Mutation permits recombination of new genes with the genes already present. This new combination of gene structure is then put to test in the environment, which can select out those genotypes that turn out to be best fitted for the environment.
CULTURAL BASIS:SOCIAL CULTURAL AND BEHAVIOUR SHAPING
After reading the biological basis of behaviour you may have developed an idea that many of our behaviours are influenced by hormones and many others occur as reflexive responses. However, hormones and reflexes do not explain all of our behaviour. The hormones play an important role in regulating human physiology, but they do not completely control human behaviour. Similarly stereotype (fixed pattern), which is the most distinguishing feature of a reflex, does not appear with most human responses.We can draw examples from several domains of our life to argue that our behavior is more complex than the behaviour of animals. A major reason for this complexity is that unlike animals, human beings have a culture to regulate their behaviour. Let us consider the basic need of hunger. We know that it has a biological basis, which is common among animals and human beings, but the way this need is gratified by human beings is extremely complex.
Concept of Social culture
You have read that human behaviour can be understood only by viewing it in the social-cultural context in which it occurs. Human behaviour is fundamentally social. It Involves relationships with other people,reactions to their behaviour, and engagement with innumerable products made available to us by our predecessors. Although many other species are also social like us, human beings are cultural as well.
WHAT IS CULTURE
In spite of the fact that culture is always with us, much confusion exists in defining culture.It is more like the notion of “energy” in physics or “group” in sociology. Some believe that culture really exists out there, and it matters to individuals, while others believe that culture does not really exist, instead it is an idea created and shared by a group of people.The innumerable definitions of culture commonly point to some of its essential features. One is that culture includes behavioural products of others who preceded us. It indicates both substantial and abstract particulars that have prior existence in one form or another. Thus, culture is already there as we begin life. It contains values that will be expressed and a language in which to express them. It contains a way of life that will be followed by most of us who grow up in that context. Such a conceptualisation of culture tends to place it outside the individual, but there are also treatments of culture that places it in the minds of individuals. In the latter case,culture is identified with a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols. Culture provides meaning by creating significant categories like social practices (e.g., marriage) and roles (e.g.,bridegroom) as well as values, beliefs and premises.
ENCULTURATION
Enculturation refers to all learning that takes place without direct, deliberate teaching. We learn certain ideas, concepts, and values simply because of their availability in our cultural context. For example, what is“vegetable” and what is “weed” or what is“cereal” and what is “non-cereal” is defined by what is already there, previously labelled as “vegetable” or “cereal” and a greed upon by people at large. Such concepts are transmitted,both directly and indirectly, and are learned very well because they are an integral part of the life of a cultural group, and are never questioned. All such examples of learning are called “enculturation”.
Thus, enculturation refers to all learning that occurs in human life because of its availability in our socio-cultural context. The Key element of enculturation is learning by observation. Whenever we learn any content of our society by observation, enculturation is in evidence. These contents are culturally shaped by our preceding generations. In this sense, enculturation always refers to learning something that is already available. A major part of our behaviour is the product of enculturation. In Indian families, many complex activities, like cooking, are learned by observation. There is no prescribed curriculum and no textbook for such activities,and there is also no deliberate instruction for cooking. Although the effects of enculturation areobvious, people are generally not aware of these effects. They are also generally not aware of what is not available in the society to be learned. This leads to an apparent paradox that people who are most thoroughly enculturated are often the least aware of their culture's role in modeling them.
SOCIALISATION
Socialisation is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions,which enable them to participate as effective members of groups and society. It is a process that continues over the entire life-span, and through which one learns and develops ways of effective functioning at any stage of development. Socialisation forms the basis of social and cultural transmission from one onegeneration to the next. Its failure in any society may endanger the very existence of that society.The concept of socialisation suggests thatall human beings are capable of a far greater repertoire of behaviours than they ever exhibit.We begin life in a particular social context,and there we learn to make certain responses and not others. The most clear example is our linguistic behaviour. Although we can speak any language that exists in this world, we learn to speak only that language which people around us speak. Within this social context we also learn many other things (e.g., when to express emotions and when to suppress them).The probability of our behaving in a particular way is greatly affected by people who relate to us. Anyone who possesses power relative to us can socialise us. Such people are called “socialisation agents''. These agents include parents, teachers and other elders, who are more knowledgeable in the ways of their society. Under certain conditions, however, evenour age peers can affect socialisation.
The process of socialisation is not always smooth transition between the individual and the socialisation agent. It sometimes involves conflicts. In such situations not only are some responses punished, but some are also blocked by the behaviour of others in ineffective ways. At the same time, several responses need to be rewarded so that they acquire greater strength. Thus, reward and punishment serve as basic means for achieving the goals of socialisation. In this sense, all socialisation seems to involve efforts by others to control behaviours.
Due to the processes of enculturation and socialization we find behavioural similarities within societies and behavioural differences across societies. Both processes involve learning from other people. In the case of socialisation, the learning involves deliberate teaching. In the case of enculturation, teaching is not necessary for learning to take place. Acculturation means engagement of people in their culture. Since most of the learning takes place with our engagement in our culture, socialisation can be easily subsumed under the process of enculturation.A good deal of our learning involves both enculturation and socialisation. Language learning is a good example. While a lot of language learning takes place spontaneously,there is also a certain amount of direct teaching of the language, such as in grammar courses in elementary schools. On the other hand,learning a language other than the mother tongue, such as learning Hindi by a European child, or French by a child in India, is completely a deliberate process.
AGENT OF SOCIALISATION
ACCULTURATION
Acculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with other cultures. Contact may be direct(e.g., when one moves and settles in a new culture) or indirect (e.g., through media or other means). It may be voluntary (e.g., when one goes abroad for higher studies, training,job, or trade) or involuntary (e.g., through colonial experience, invasion, political refugee).In both cases, people often need to learn (andalso they do learn) something new to negotiate life with people of other cultural groups. For Example, during the British rule in India many individuals and groups adopted several aspects of British lifestyle. They preferred to go to the English schools, take up salaried jobs, dress in English clothes, speak English Language, and change their religion.
Acculturation can take place any time in one's life. Whenever it occurs, it requires re-learning of norms, values, dispositions, and patterns of behaviour. Changes in these aspects require re-socialisation. Sometimespeople find it easy to learn these new things,and if their learning has been successful, shifts in their behaviour easily take place in the direction of the group that brings in acculturation. In this situation transition to a new life is relatively smooth and free from problems. On the other hand, in many situations people experience difficulties in dealing with new demands of change. They Find change difficult, and are thrown into astate of conflict. This situation is relatively painful as it leads to experience of stress and other behavioural difficulties by acculturation individuals and groups.
Psychologists have widely studied how people psychologically change during acculturation. For any acculturation to take place contact with another cultural group is essential. This often generates some sort of conflict. Since people cannot live in a state of conflict for a long time, they often resort to certain strategies to resolve their conflicts. For a long time it was felt that social or cultural change oriented towards modernity Was unidirectional which meant that all people confronting the problem of change would move from a traditional state to a state of modernity. However, studies carried out with immigrants to western countries and native or tribal people in different parts of the world have revealed that people have various options to deal with the problem of acculturative changes. Thus,the course of acculturation and change in multi direction.
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