SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESS

 SOCIAL  INFLUENCE  AND  GROUP PROCESS

                                   

   

A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting  and  interdependent,  who  have common  motives,  have  a  set  of  role relationships among its members, and have norms  that  regulate  the  behaviour  of  its members. 

Groups  have  the  following  salient characteristics  :-

•A social unit consisting of two or more individuals  who  perceive  themselves as  belonging  to  the  group.  This characteristic  of  the  group  helps  in distinguishing  one  group  from  the other  and  gives  the  group  its  unique identity.

•A  collection  of  individuals  who  have common  motives  and  goals.  Groups  either working towards a given goal,  or  away  from  certain  threats facing  the  group.

•A  collection  of  individuals  who  are interdependent,  i.e.  What  one  is  doing may  have  consequences  for  others.Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket team drops an important catch during a match — this will have consequences for  the  entire  team.

•Individuals  who  are  trying  to  satisfy  a need  through  their  joint  association also  influence  each  other.

•A gathering of individuals who interact with  one  another  either  directly  or indirectly.

•A  collection  of  individuals  whose interactions  are  structured  by  a  set  of rules  and  norms.  This  means  that  the group  members  perform  the  same functions  every  time  the  group  meets and  the  group  members  adhere  to group  norms.

  Norms  tell  us  how  we ought  to  behave  in  the  group  and specify  the  behaviours  expected  from group  members.Groups can be differentiated from other collections of people. For example, a crowd is  also  a  collection  of  people  who  may  be present  at  a  place/situation  by  chance. Suppose you are going on the road and an accident takes place. Soon a large number of people tend to collect. This is an example of a crowd. There is neither any structure or  feeling  of  belongingness  in  a  crowd. Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational and  there  is  no  interdependence  among members. Teams  are  special  kinds  of  groups. Members  of  teams  often  have  comple-mentary  skills  and  are  committed  to  a common  goal  or  purpose.  Members  are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, there is a positive synergy attained through  the  coordinated  efforts  of  the members.  

The  main  differences  between groups  and  teams  are:-

•In  groups,  performance  is  dependent on   contributions   of   individual members.    In  teams,  both  individual contributions  and  teamwork  matter.

•In  groups,  the  leader  or  whoever  is reading the group holds responsibility for  the  work.  However  in  teams,although  there  is  a  leader,  members hold  themselves  responsible.

 The audience  is  also  a  collection  of people  who  have  assembled  for  a  special purpose, maybe to watch a cricket match or a movie. Audiences are generally passive but  sometimes  they  go  into  a  frenzy  and become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite sense  of  purpose.  There  is  polarisation  inattention, and actions of persons are in a common  direction.  Mob  behaviour  is characterised  by  homogeneity  of  thought and  behaviour  as  well  as  impulsivity.

Why  Do  People  Join  Groups?

All  of  you  are  members  of  your  family,class and groups with which you interact or play.  Similarly,  other  people  are  also members  of  a  number  of  groups  at  any given  time.  Different  groups  satisfy different  needs,  and  therefore,  we  are simultaneously  members  of  different groups. This sometimes creates pressures for  us  because  there  may  be  competing demands and expectations. Most often we are  able  to  handle  these  competing demands  and  expectations.  People  join groups  because  these  groups  satisfy  a range  of  needs.  

In  general,  people  join groups  for  the  following  reasons  :-

•Security : When we are alone,we feel insecure.    Groups    reduce    this insecurity.  Being  with  people  gives  a sense  of  comfort,  and  protection.  As  a result, people feel stronger, and are less vulnerable  to  threats.

•Status  :  When  we  are  members  of  a group that is perceived to be important by  others,  we  feel  recognised  and experience  a  sense  of  power.  Supposeyour   school   wins   in   an   inter-institutional  debate  competition,  you feel proud and think that you are better than  others.

•Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity. Being a member of prestigious groups  enhances  one’s  self-concept.

                                  

•Satisfaction  of  one’s  psychological and social needs :- Groups satisfy one’ssocial and psychological needs such as sense  of  belongingness,  giving  and receiving  attention,  love,  and  power through  a  group.

•Goal  achievement  :-  Groups  help  in achieving  such  goals  which  cannot  be attained individually. There is power in the  majority.

•Provide knowledge and information:- Group membership provides knowledge and information and thus broadens our view.  As  individuals,  we  may  not  have all  the  required  information.  Groups Supplement  this  information  and knowledge. 

Group  FormationIn this section, we will see how groups are formed. Basic to group formation is somecontact  and  some  form  of  interaction between  people. 

 This  interaction  is facilitated  by  the  following  conditions:-

•Proximity  :-  Just  think  about  your group of friends. Would you have been friends  if  you  were  not  living  in  the same  colony,  or  going  to  the  same school, or maybe playing in the same playground?  Probably  your  answer would  be  ‘No’.  Repeated  interactions with the same set of individuals give us a  chance  to  know  them,  and  their interests  and  attitudes.  Common Interests,  attitudes,  and  background are  important  determinants  of  your liking  for  your  group  members.

•  Similarity :- Being exposed to someone over a period of time makes us assessor  similarities  and  paves  the  way  for formation  of  groups.  Why  do  we  like people  who  are  similar?  Psychologistshave given several explanations for this.One  explanation  is  that  people  prefer consistency and like relationships that are  consistent.  When  two  people are similar. There  is  consistency  and  they start  liking  each  other.  For  example,you  like  playing  football  and  another person in your class also loves playing football;  there  is  a  matching  of  your interests. There are higher chances that you  may  become  friends.  Another Explanation  given  by  psychologists  is that when we meet similar people, they reinforce and validate our opinions and values, we feel we are right and thus we start  liking  them.  Suppose  you  are  of the opinion that too much watching of television is not good, because it shows too  much  violence.  You  meet  someonewho  also  has  similar  views.  This Validates  your  opinion,  and  you  start liking the person who was instrumental in  validating  your  opinion.

                          

•Common  motives  and  goals  :-Whenpeople have common motives or goals,they  get  together  and  form  a  group which   may   facilitate   their   goal attainment. Suppose you want to teach children in a slum area who are unable to  go  to  school.  You  cannot  do  this alone  because  you  have  your  own studies and homework. You, therefore,form a group of like-minded friends and start  teaching  these  children.  So  you have  been  able  to  achieve  what  you could  not  have  done  alone.

Stages  of  Group  Formation

Remember that, like everything else in life,groups  develop.  You  do  not  become  a group  member  the  moment  you  come together.  Groups  usually  go  through different  stages  of  formation,  conflict, stabilisation,  performance,  and  dismissal.Tuckman  suggested  that  groups  pass through  five  developmental  sequences.

These  are:-  forming,  storming,  norming,performing  and  adjourning.

•When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the group. the  goal,  and  how  it  is  to  be achieved. People try to know each other and  assess  whether  they  will  fit  in.There  is  excitement  as  well  as apprehensions. This stage is called the forming  stage.

•Often, after this stage, there is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to  as  storming.  In  this  stage,  there  is conflict among members about how the target  of  the  group  is  to  be  achieved,who  is  to  control  the  group  and  its resources, and who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some sort  of  hierarchy  of  leadership  in  the group develops and a clear vision as to how  to  achieve  the  group  goal.

•The  storming  stage  is  followed  by another  stage  known  as  norming.Group  members  by  this  time  develop norms related to group behaviour. This Leads to development of a positive group identity.

•The fourth stage is performing. By this time,  the  structure  of  the  group  has evolved  and  is  accepted  by  group members.  The  group  moves  towards achieving  the  group  goal.  For  some groups,  this  may  be  the  last  stage  of group  development.

•However, for some groups, for example,in the case of an organising committee for a  school  function,  there  may  be another  stage  known  as  adjourning stage. In this stage, once the function is  over,  the  group  may  be  disbanded.

Four important  elements  of  group structure  are  :-

•Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected  to  fulfil.  Roles  refer  to  the typical behaviour that depicts a person in  a  given  social  context.  You  have  the role of a son or a daughter and with this role, there are certain role expectations,i.e. including the behaviour expected of someone  in  a  particular  role.  As  a daughter or a son, you are expected to respect  elders,  listen  to  them,  and  be responsible  towards  your  studies.

•Norms  are  expected  standards  of behaviour  and  beliefs  established, agreed  upon,  and  enforced  by  group members.  They  may  be  considered  as a  group’s  ‘unspoken  rules’.  In  your family, there are norms that guide the behaviour  of  family  members.These norms represent  shared  ways  of viewing  the  world.

•Status  refers  to  the  relative  social position  given  to  group  members  by others.  This  relative  position  or  status may  be  either  ascribed  (given  may  be because of one’s seniority) or achieved(the  person  has  achieved  status because of expertise or hard work).  By Being members of the group, we enjoy the  status  associated  with  that  group.All  of  us,  therefore,  strive  to  be members  of  such  groups  which  are high in status or are viewed favourably by  others.  Even  within  a  group,different  members  have  different prestige  and  status.  For  example,  the captain of a cricket team has a higher status compared to the other members, although  all  are  equally  important  for the  team’s  success.

•Cohesiveness  refers  to  togetherness,binding,  or  mutual  attraction  among group members. As the group becomes more cohesive, group members start to think, feel and act as a social unit, andless like isolated individuals. Members Of  a  highly  cohesive  group  have  a greater desire to remain in the group in comparison to those who belong to low cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense of  belongingness  to  the  group.  It  is difficult to leave a cohesive group or to gain  membership  of  a  group  which  is highly  cohesive.  Extreme  cohesiveness however,  may  sometimes  not  be  in  a group's  interest.  Psychologists  have identified    the    phenomenon    of groupthink which  is  a consequence  of  extreme  cohesiveness.

TYPE OF  GROUPS

Groups differ in many respects; some have a  large  number  of  members  (e.g.,  a country),  some  are  small  (e.g.,  a  family), some  are  short-lived  (e.g.,  a  committee),some remain together for many years (e.g.,religious  groups),  some  are  highly organised  (e.g.,  army,  police,  etc.),  and others  are  informally  organised  (e.g.,spectators of a match). People may belong to different types of groups.

Major types of groups  are  enumerated  below  :-

•primary  and  secondary  groups

•formal  and  informal  groups

•ingroup  and  outgroup.

Primary  and  Secondary  Groups

A  major  difference  between  primary  and secondary  groups  is  that  primary  groups are  pre-existing  formations  which  are usually  given  to  the  individual  whereas secondary  groups  are  those  which  the individual  joins  by  choice.  Thus,  family,caste,  and  religion  are  primary  groups whereas membership of a political party is an  example  of  a  secondary  group.  In  a primary  group,  there  is  a  face-to-face interaction,  members  have  close  physical proximity, and they share warm emotional bonds.  Primary  groups  are  central  to an individual's  functioning  and  have  a  very major role in developing values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of development.  In  contrast,  secondary groups  are  those  where  relationships among  members  are  more  impersonal, indirect, and less frequent. In the primary group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e.members do not have the option to choose its membership as compared to 

secondary groups  where  it  is  easy  to  leave  and  join another  group. 

Formal  and  Informal  Groups

These groups differ in the degree to which the  functions  of  the  group  are  stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an office organisation. The roles tobe performed by group members are stated in an explicit  manner.  The  formal  and informal  groups  differ  on  the  basis  of structure. The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members  have  definite  roles.  There  are  a set  of  norms  which  help  in  establishing order.  A  university  is  an  example  of  a formal  group.  On  the  other  hand,  the formation of informal groups is not based on  rules  or  laws  and  there  is  close relationship  among  members.

Ingroup  and  Outgroup

Just  as  individuals  compare  themselves with  others  in  terms  of  similarities  and differences with respect to what they have and  what  others  have,  individuals  also compare  the  group  they  belong  to  with groups  of  which  they  are  not  a  member.The  term  ‘ingroup’  refers  to  one’s  own group,  and  ‘outgroup’  refers  to  another group.  For  ingroup  members,  we  use  the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word  ‘they’ is  used.  By  using  the  words they and we, one is categorising people as similar or different. It has been found that persons  in  the  ingroup  are  generally supposed  to  be  similar,  are  viewed favourably,  and  have  desirable  traits. Members  of  the  outgroup  are  viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in  comparison  to  the  ingroup  members. Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our  social  lives. Although  it  is  common  to  make  these categorisations,  it  should  be  appreciated that these categories are not real and are created by us. In some cultures, plurality is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture which is reflected not only in the lives we live, but also  in  our  art,  architecture,  and  music

INDIVIDUALBEHAVIOUR

We have seen that groups are powerful as they are able to influence the behaviour of individuals.  

What  is  the  nature  of  this influence? What impact does the presence of others have on our performance? 

We will discuss  two  situations  :- 

 (i)  an  individual performing  an  activity  alone  in  the presence  of  others  (social  facilitation),and 

(ii) an individual performing an activity along  with  the  others  as  part  of  a  larger group  (social  loafing).

we would try to understand the phenomenon  of  social  loafing  in  this section.

Social  Loafing

Social  facilitation  research  suggests  that presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate  individuals  to  enhance  their performance  if  they  are  already  good  at solving  something.  This  enhancement occurs  when  a  person’s  efforts  are individually evaluated. What would happen if the efforts  of  an  individual  in  a  group  are pooled so that you look at the performance of  the  group  as  a  whole?  Do  you  know what  often  happens?  It  has  been  found that individuals work less hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This Points  to  a  phenomenon  referred  to  as ‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction in  individual  effort  when  working  on  acollective  task,  i.e.  one  in  which  outputs are  pooled  with  those  of  other  group members. An example of such a task is the game  of  tug-of-war.  It  is  not  possible  for you  to  identify  how  much  force  each member  of  the  team  has  been  exerting. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free rider. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in  many  experiments  by  Latane  and his associate who  asked a group  of  malestudents  to  clap  or  cheer  as  loudly  as possible  as  they  (experimenters)  were interested  in  knowing  how  much  noise people make in social settings. They varied the  group  size;  individuals  were  either alone,  or  in  groups  of  two,  four  and  six. The  results  of  the  study  showed  that although the total amount of noise rose up,as  size  increased,  the  amount  of  noise produced by each participant dropped. In Other  words,  each  participant  put  in  less effort  as  the  group  size  increased.

 Why Does Social Loafing occur? 

•  Group members feel less responsible for the  overall  task  being  performed  and therefore  exert  less  effort.

• Motivation  of  members  decreases because  they  realise  that  their contributions  will  not  be  evaluated  on an individual  basis.

• The performance of the group is not tobe  compared  with  other  groups.

• There  is  an  improper  coordination  (orno  coordination)  among  members.

• Belonging  to  the  same  group  is  not important  for  members.  It  is  only  an aggregate  of  individuals.

Social  loafing  may  be  reduced  by:-

• Making  the  efforts  of  each  person identifiable.

• Increasing  the  pressure  to  work  hard(making  group  members  committed  to successful  task  performance).

• Increasing the apparent importance or value  of  a  task.

• Making people feel that their individual contribution  is  important.

• Strengthening  group  cohesiveness which  increases  the  motivation  for successful  group  outcome

CONFORMITY,  COMPLIANCE,  AND OBEDIENCE

Groups and individuals exert influence on us. This influence may force us to change our  behaviours  in  a  particular  direction.The term ‘social influence’ refers to those processes  whereby  our  attitudes  and behaviours  are  influenced  by  the  real  or imagined  presence  of  other  people.Throughout the day you may encounter a number  of  situations  where  others  have tried to influence you and make you think in ways they want. Your parents, teachers,friends,  radio  and  television  commercials create  one  or  the  other  kind  of  social influence. Social influence is a part of our life. In some situations, social influence on us is    

 DETERMINANTS OF CONFORMITY

(i)Size  of  the  group  :-  Conformity  is greater when the group is small than when the group is large. Why does it happen? It is  easier  for  a  deviant  member  (one  who does not conform) to be noticed in a small group.  However,  in  a  large  group,  if  there is  strong  agreement  among  most  of  the members,  this  makes  the  majority stronger,  and  therefore,  the  norm  is  also stronger.  In  such  a  case,  the  minority member(s) would be more likely to conform because  the  group  pressure  would  be stronger.

(ii)Size  of  the  minority:-  Take  the  case of  the  Asch  experiment. Suppose the subject finds that after some rounds  of  judgment  of  the  lines,  there  is another  participant  who  starts  agreeing with  the  subject’s  answer.  Would  the subject now be more likely to conform, or less  likely  to  do  so?  When  the  dissenting or  deviating  minority  size  increases,  the likelihood of conformity decreases. In fact,it  may  increase  the  number  of  dissenters or  non-conformists  in  the  group.

(iii)Nature  of  the  task:-In  Asch's Experiment,the  task  required  an  answer that could be verified, and could be correct or  incorrect.  Suppose  the  task  involves giving  an  opinion  about  some  topic.  In Such a case, there is no correct or incorrect answer. In which  situation  is  there  likely to be more conformity, the first one where there  is  something  like  a  correct  or  incorrect answer, or the second one where answers  can  vary  widely  without  any answer being correct or incorrect? You may have  guessed  right;  conformity  would  be less  likely  in  the  second  situation.

(iv)Public  or  private  expression  of behaviour:-  In  the  Asch  technique,  the group  members  are  asked  to  give  their answers  publicly,  i.e.  all  members  know who  has  given  which  response.  However,there can be other situations (for example,voting  by  secret  ballot)  in  which  the behaviour  of  members  is  private  (not known to others). Less conformity is found under  private  expression  than  it  is  seen under  public  expression

(v)Personality:-The conditions described above  show  how  the  features  of  the situation are important in determining the degree  of  conformity  shown.  We  also  find that  some  individuals  have  a  conforming personality. Such persons have a tendency to  change  their  behaviour  according  to what others say or do in most situations. By contrast, there are individuals who are independent,  and  do  not  look  for  a  norm in  order  to  decide  how  to  behave  in a specific  situation.  Research  has  shown that  highly  intelligent  people,  those  who are confident of themselves, those who are strongly  committed  and  have  a  high  self-esteem  are  less  likely  to  conform.

                                 

Conformity  takes  place  because  of informational  influence,  i.e.  influence  that results  from  accepting  evidence  rather than  reality.  This  kind  of  rational conformity  can  be  thought  of  as  learning about the world from the actions of others. We learn by observing people, who are the best  source  of  information  about  many social  conventions.  New  group  members learn  about  the  group’s  customs  by observing  the  actions  of  other  group members.  Conformity  may  also  occur because  of  normative  influence,  i.e.influence based on a person’s desire to be accepted  or  admired  by  others.  In  such cases,  people  conform  because  deviation from the group may lead to rejection or at the least,  non-acceptance  of  some  form  of punishment.  It  is  generally  observed  that the  group  majority  determines  the  final decision,  but  in  certain  conditions,  the minority  may  be  more  influential.  This Occurs when the minority takes a firm and uncompromising stand, thereby creating a doubt on the correctness of the majority's viewpoint. This creates a conflict within the group. ComplianceIt was stated earlier that compliance refers simply to behaving in response to a request from another person or group even in the absence  of  a  norm. 

 A  good  example  of compliance is the kind of behaviour shown when  a  salesperson  comes  to  our  door. Very  often,  this  person  comes  with  some goods  that  we  really  do  not  wish  to  buy.Yet,  sometimes  to  our  own  surprise,  wefind that the salesperson has spoken to usfor a few minutes and the conversation has ended  with  a  purchase  of  what  he  or  she wished  to  sell.  So  why  do  people  comply?In  many  situations,  this  happens because  it  is  an  easy  way  out  of  the situation.  It  is  more  polite  and  the  other party is pleased. In other situations, there could  be  other  factors  at  work.  The Following  techniques  have  been  found  to work when someone wants another person to  comply.

•The foot-in-the-door technique :Theperson  begins  by  making  a  small request  that  the  other  person  is  not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the request, a bigger request is  made.  Simply  because  the  other person  has  already  complied  with  the smaller request,  he  or  she  may  feel uncomfortable  refusing  the  second request.  For  example,  someone  may come  to  us  on  behalf  of  a  group  and give  us  a  gift  (something  free),  saying that   it   is   for   promotion.   Soonafterwards,  another  member  of  the same group may come to us again, and ask  us  to  buy  a  product  made  by  the group.

•The  deadline  technique  :  In  this technique,  a  ‘last  date’  is  announced until which a particular product or ‘anoffer’  will  be  available.  The  aim  is  to make  people  ‘hurry’  and  make  the purchase  before  they  miss  the  rare opportunity.  It  is  more  likely  that people  will  buy  a  product  under  this deadline  condition  than  if  there  is  no such  deadline.

•The  door-in-the-face  technique  :  In This  technique,  you  begin  with  a  large request and when this is refused a later request for something smaller, the one that  was  actually  desired,  is  made,which is usually granted by the person.

ObedienceWhen  compliance  is  shown  to  an instruction  or  order  from  a  person  in authority,  such  as  parents,  teachers,leaders,  or  policemen,  that  behaviour  is called  obedience.  Why  people  show obedience  is  easy  to  understand.  Mostoften  it  is  because  if  we  disobey,  some punishment might follow. Sometimes, it's because  we  believe  that  persons  in authority  must  be  obeyed.  People  in authority  have  effective  means  for enforcing their orders. Milgram Conducted An  experiment  to  show  that  individuals obey  commands  from  people  who  are strangers. The experimenter informed the respondents  in  the  study  that  they  were participating in an experiment to study the effects  of  punishment  on  learning.  The Experiment  was  conducted  on  pairs.  Oneperson  in  each  pair  was  the  “learner”,whose  work  was  to  memorise  pairs  of words.  The  other  participant  was  the“teacher”,  who  would  read  these  words aloud  and  punish  the  learner  when  s/hemade errors by giving her/him shock. Thelearner  would  make  errors  according  to prearranged instructions. The teacher was asked  to  deliver  a  shock  each  time  the learner  made  errors.  The  teacher  was further told to increase the strength of the shock each time the learner made an error.In  reality,  no  shocks  were  given.  The Instructions  were  so  arranged  that  the teacher  was  faced  with  a  dilemma  —should  s/he  continue  shocks  even  when they  were  increasingly  painful?  Theexperimenter  kept  on  motivating  the teacher  to  continue.  In  all,  65  per  centshowed total obedience. Some participants,however, protested and asked the session to end. Milgram’s study suggests that even ordinary  people  are  willing  to  harm  an innocent person if ordered by someone inauthority.Why  do  people  obey even  when  they know  that  their  behaviour  is  harming others?  Psychologists  have  identified several  reasons  for  this. 

Some  of  these reasons  are  :-

•People obey because they feel that they are  not  responsible  for  their  own actions,  they  are  simply  carrying  out orders  from  the  authority.

•Authority  generally  possesses  symbols of  status  (e.g.,  uniform,  title)  which people  find  difficult  to  resist.

•Authority     gradually     increases commands from lesser to greater levels and  initial  obedience  binds  the followers  for  commitment.  Once  you obey  small  orders,  slowly  there  is  an escalation  of  commitment  for  the person  who  is  in  authority  and  onestarts  obeying  bigger  orders.

COOPERATION AND  COMPETITION

People interact with each other in different contexts.  Behaviours  in  most  social situations  are  characterised  by  either ‘cooperation’ or ‘competition’. When groups work together to achieve shared goals, we refer  to  it  as  cooperation.  The  rewards  in cooperative  situations  are  group  rewards and not individual rewards. However, when members  try  to  maximise  their  own benefits and work for the realisation of self-interest,  competition  is  likely  to  result.Social  groups  may  have  both  competitive as  well  as  cooperative  goals.  Competitive Goals  are  set  in  such  a  way  that  each individual  can  get  her/his  goal  only  if others  do  not  attain  their  goals.

Determinants  of  Cooperation  and Competition

What factors determine whether people will cooperate  or  compete?

  Some  of  the important  ones  are  given  below:

(i)Reward  structure  :-  Psychologists believe  that  whether  people  will  cooperate or compete will depend on the reward  structure.  Cooperative  reward structure  is  one  in  which  there  is promotive  interdependence.  Each  is beneficiary of the reward and reward is possible  only  if  all  contribute.  A competitive reward structure is one in which  one  can  get  a  reward  only  if others  do  not  get  it.

-Whenthere     is     good     interpersonal communication, then cooperation is the likely  consequence.  Communication Facilitates  interaction,  and  discussion.As  a  result,  group  members  can convince  each  other  and  learn  about each  other.

(iii)Reciprocity  :-Reciprocity  means  that people feel obliged to return what they get.  Initial  cooperation  may  encourage more  cooperation.  Competition  may provoke  more  competition.  If  someone helps, you feel like helping that person;on  the  other  hand,  if  someone  refuses to  help  you  when  you  need  help,  you wouldn't like to help that person also.

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