SKILLS

 SKILLS

Psychology  is  a  universal agreement on the basic assumptions about human   nature   and   the   role   of   a psychologist  in  different  settings.  It  is generally assumed that psychologists have interest  in  people,  their  abilities  and temperaments.  

A  psychologist  from any field is required  to  have  interest  in  other people and exhibits a willingness to provide help  by  using  her/his  knowledge  of  the discipline. One can find active involvement of  a  psychologist  in  obtaining  the client's  history,  her/his  socio-cultural environment,  assessment  of  her/his personality  and  also  on  other  important dimensions.

The term  ‘skill’  may  be  defined  as proficiency,  facility  or  dexterity  that  is acquired or developed through training and experience. The Webster dictionary defines it  as  “possession  of  the  qualities  required to  do  something  or  get  something done”.

American  Psychological 

Association(1973)  in  their  task  force  constituted with  the  objective  to  identify  skills essential  for  professional  psychologists recommended at least three sets of skills.These  are:  assessment  of  individual differences,  behaviour  modification  skills,and  counselling  and  guidance  skills.

               

The basic skills or competencies which psychologists have identified for becoming an  effective  psychologist  fall  into  three broad sections, namely, 

(a) General Skills,

(b) Observational Skills, and 

(c) SpecificSkills

GENERAL SKILLS

These skills are generic in nature and are needed by all psychologists irrespective of their field of specialisation. These skills are essential for all professional psychologists,whether  they  are  working  in  the  field  of clinical and health psychology,industrial/organisational,  social,  educational or  in environmental  settings,  or  are  acting  as consultants. These skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. It is expected that  it  will  not  be  proper  to  provide  anyform of professional training (in clinical or organisational  fields)  to  students  who  don't  possess  these  skills.  Once  a  student has  these  skills,  subsequent  training  in her/his  area  of  specialisation  would  only refine  and  further  hone  these  skills required  by  a  professional  within  her/his field  of  specialisation.

          

OBSERVATION SKILLS

A great  deal  of  what  psychologists  as researchers  and  practitioners  do  in  the field  is  to  pay  attention,  watch  and  listen carefully. They use all the senses, noticing what is seen,  heard,  smelt,  tasted,  ortouched.  A  psychologist,  thus,  is  like  an instrument  that  absorbs  all  sources  of information  from  the  environment.

A psychologist  engages  in  observing various  facets  of  surroundings  including people and varying events. To begin with,a  psychologist  may  begin  with  carefully scrutinizing  the  physical  setting  in  order to  capture  its  “atmosphere”. 

The following points are taken into consideration while making an observation.

Observe  patiently;

• Pay  close  attention  to  your  physical surroundings  —  who,  what,  when,where,  and  how;

• Be  aware  of  people’s  reactions,emotions,  and  motivations;

• Ask  questions  that  can  be  answered while  observing;

• Be  yourself,  give  information  about yourself,  if  asked;

• Observe  with  an  optimistic  curiosity and

• Be ethical, you have to respect privacy,norms of people you are observing, take care not to disclose any information to anyone.

Naturalistic Observation is one of the primary  ways  of  learning  about  the  way people behave in a given setting. Suppose,you  want  to  learn  how  people  behave  in response to a heavy discount provided by a company while visiting a shopping mall. For this, you could visit the shopping mall where the discounted items are showcased and systematically observe what people do and  say  before  and  after  the  purchases have  been  made.  Making  comparisons  of this  kind  may  provide  you  with  useful insights  into  what  is  going  on. 

Participant  Observation  is  the variation  of  the  method  of  naturalistic observation.  Here  the  observer  is  actively involved  in  the  process  of  observing  by becoming an active member of the setting where  the  observation  takes  place.  For Instance, for the problem mentioned above,an observer may take a part-time job in a shopping  mall  showroom  to  become  an insider in order to observe variations in the behaviour of customers. This technique is widely  used  by  anthropologists  whose objective is to gain a first hand perspective of  a  system  from  within  which  otherwise may not be readily available to an outsider.

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of Observation

•Its  major  advantage  is  that  it  allows behaviour to be seen and studied in its natural  setting.

•People  from  outside,  or  those  already working in a setting, can be trained to use  it.

•One  disadvantage  of  it  is  that  events being observed are subject to bias due to the feelings of the people involved as well  as  of  the  observers.

•Generally  day-to-day  activities  in  a given  setting  are  fairly  routine,  which can  go  unnoticed  by  the  observer.

•Another  potential  pitfall  is  that  the actual  behaviour  and  responses  of others  may  get  influenced  by  the presence  of  the  observer,  thus,defeating   the  very purpose of observation.

SPECIFIC SKILLS

These Skills  are  core/basic  to  the  field  of psychological  service.  For  example,psychologists  working  in  clinical  settings need  to  be  trained  in  various  techniques of therapeutic interventions, psychological assessment,  and  counselling.  Similarly,organisational psychologists working in the organisational  context  need to have skills in assessment,  facilitation  and consultation,  behavioural  skills  to  bring about  individual,  group,  team  and organisational  development  besides research skills, etc. Though, specific skills and  competencies  are  required  for  a  very specialised  professional  functioning,nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quite a  bit.  They  are  not  exclusive  to  an  area.Relevant  specific  skills  and  competencies can  be  classified  as  follows:-

(a)Communication  Skills

•Speaking

•Active  listening

•Body  language  or  non-verbal  skills

(b)Psychological  Testing  Skills

(c)Interviewing  Skills

(d)Counselling  Skills

•Empathy

•Positive  regard

•Authenticity

Communication  Skills

The  skills  we  are  going  to  discuss  may appear  abstract.  You  will,  however,understand them better when you engage in  exercises  related  to  them.  Let  us understand  the  basics  of the communication process  and  see  what  role  it  plays  in fostering  relationships  and  personal effectiveness.  Learning  how  to  be  an effective  communicator  is  not  just  an academic  exercise.  It  is  one  of  the  most important  skills  you  will  need  to  succeed in life. 

Communication    is    a    conscious    or unconscious,  intentional  or  unintentional process  in  which  feelings  and  ideas  are expressed  as  verbal  and/or  non-verbalmessages  that  are  sent,  received,  and comprehended.

Characteristics of Communication

• Communication is dynamic because the process is constantly in a state of change. As the expectations,  attitudes,  feelings,  and  emotions  of  the  persons  who  are  communicating change, the nature of their communication also changes.

• Communication is continuous because it never stops, whether we are asleep or awake we are always processing ideas or thoughts. Our brain remains active.

• Communication is irreversible because once we send a message we cannot take it back.Once we have made a slip of tongue, given a meaningful glance, or engaged in an emotional outburst, we cannot erase it.  Our apologies or denials can make it light but cannot stamp out what was communicated.

• Communication is interactive because we are constantly in contact with other people and with ourselves. Others react to our speech and actions, and we react to our own speech and actions, and then react to those reactions. Thus, a cycle of action and reaction is the basis of our communication.

The  process  of  communication  can  be accidental  (having  no  intent),  expressive(resulting  from  the  emotional  state  of  the person),  or  rhetorical  (resulting  from  the specific goal of the communicator). 

Human communication  occurs  on  the  intra-personal, interpersonal, and public levels.Intrapersonal  involves communicating  with  yourself.  It  en-compasses  such  activities  as  thoughtprocesses,  personal  decision  making,and  focusing  on  self.  Interpersonal communication     refers     to     the communication  that  takes  place  between two  or  more  persons  who  establish  a communicative  relationship.  Forms  of interpersonal communication include face-to-face  or  mediated  conversations, interviews  and  small  group  discussions. 

Public communication is characterised by a  speaker  sending  a  message  to  an audience.  It  may  be  direct,  such  as face-to-face  messages  delivered  by  the speaker  to  an  audience,  or  indirect,such  as  messages  relayed  over  radio  or television.

Components of Human Communication

When  we  communicate,  we  communicate selectively. That is, from the wide range of repertoire  of  words,  actions,  etc.  available to us, we choose that which we believe is best suited for the idea we wish to express.When  we  communicate,  we  encode  (i.e.,take  ideas,  give  them  meaning  and  put them  into  message  forms),  and  send  theidea through a channel. It is composed of four  primary  signal  systems  based  on  our senses  (i.e.,  seeing,  hearing,  tasting,smelling,  and  touching).  The  message  is sent to someone who receives it using heror  his  primary  signal  system.  S/he decodes  (i.e.,  translates  message  into understandable  forms).  For  example,  you may say that you heard a bell or an object that feels  soft.  These  are  examples  of  verbal communication  which  express  how you understand the  signals  your  senses  have received. 

Communication  is  broader;  it involves a relationship among two or more people  in  which  they  attempt  to  share meaning  so  that  the  intent  of the message received  is  the  same  as  the  intent  of  the message  sent.

Speaking

One  important  component  of  communication  is  speaking  with  the  use  of language.  Language  involves  use  of symbols  which  package  meaning  within them.  To  be  effective,  a  communicator must   know   how   to   use   language appropriately. Because language is symbolic, it is necessary to be as clear and precise  as  possible  when  using  words. Communication  takes  place  within  a context.  So  one  needs  to  consider  the other's  frame  of  reference,  that  is,  the context  used  by  the  sender  to  say something. Also whether s/he shares your interpretation.    If  not,  it  is  important  to adjust your vocabulary level and choice of words  to  fit  the  level  of  the  listener. Remember  that  slang  expressions,  words unique  to  a  culture  or  region,  and euphemisms  can  sometimes  become obstacles  in  good  communication.

Listening

Listening is an important skill that we use daily.  Your academic success, employment achievement,  and  personal  happiness,  toa large extent, depend upon your ability to listen  effectively.    At  first,  listening  may appear  to  you  as  a  passive  behaviour,  asit  involves  silence.    But  this  image  of passivity  is  far  from  true.  Listening Requires  a  person  to  be  attentive.  S/he should be patient, non-judgmental and yet have  the  capacity  to  analyse  andrespond.Hearing and listening are not the same.Hearing is a biological activity that involves reception  of  a  message  through  sensory channels.    It  is  only  a  part  of  listening,  a process that involves reception, attention,assignment  of  meaning,  and  listener's response to the message presented.

Reception

The initial step in the listening process is the reception of a stimulus or message. Amessage could be auditory and/or visual. The hearing process is based on a complex set of physical interactions that take place involving the ear and the brain.  In addition to  using  the  hearing  mechanism,  people listen  through  their  visual  system.  They Observe  a  person’s  facial  expressions, posture, movement,  and  appearance,which provide important cues that may not be obvious merely by listening to the verbal part  of  the  message. 

Attention 

Once the stimulus, i.e. the word or visual,or both, is received, it reaches the attention stage of the human processing system.  In This phase, the other stimuli recede so that we  can  concentrate  on  specific  words  or visual symbols. Normally your attention is divided  between  what  you  are  attempting to listen to, and what is happening around you,  and  what  is  going  on  in  your  mind. Consider,  you  are  watching  a  movie.  Theperson  in  front  of  you  is  constantly whispering  to  her/his  friend.  There  is  abuzz  in  the  sound  system.  You  are also  worried  about  the  forthcoming examination.  So  your  attention  is  being pulled  in  different  directions.  Divided Attention  makes  it  difficult  for  you  to receive  signals  or  messages.

Paraphrasing

How  would  you  know  that  someone  has been  listening?  Ask  her/him  to  restate what  you  had  said.  The  person doing this  does  not  repeat  your  exact  words.S/he  makes  a  summary  of  the  ideas  just received  and  provides  you  with  a restatement  of  what  s/he  understands. This is called ‘paraphrasing’. It allows you to understand how much s/he understood what  was  communicated.  If  someone cannot repeat or write down a summary of what was said, then s/he probably did not get  the  whole  message  or  did  not understand  it.  We  can  keep  this  in  mind when we are listening to our teacher in the class or to others.

Assignment  of  Meaning

The  process  of  putting  the  stimulus  we have  received  into  some  predetermined category develops as we acquire language. We   develop   mental   categories   for interpreting  the  message  we  receive.  For Instance,  our  categorising  system  for  the word ‘cheese’ may include such factors as a  dairy  product,  its  peculiar  taste  and colour,  all  of  which  help  us  to  relate  the word  ‘cheese’  to  the  sense  in  which  it  is used.

Role  of  Culture  in  Listening

Like  the  brain,  the  culture  in  which  we have been brought up also influences our listening  and  learning  abilities.  Asiancultures,  such  as  India,  emphasize  on listening  by  being  a  silent  communicator when  receiving  messages  from  seniors  or elders. Some cultures focus on controlling attention.  Buddhism,  for  instance,  has  anotion  called  ‘mindfulness’.  This  means devoting  your  complete  attention  to whatever  you  are  doing.  Training  in 'mindfulness’  which  starts  in  childhood can help to develop longer attention spans and  therefore,  lead  not  only  to  better listening but also to sympathetic listening. However, in many cultures, such listening enhancing  concepts  are  not  present.

Body  Language

Do  you  believe  that  when  you  communicate  with  another  person,  your  words communicate the complete meaning of the message?  If  your  answer  is  yes,  then  you are  mistaken.  We  all  know  that  it  is possible to communicate a great deal even without  using  verbal  language.  We  are aware  that  non-verbal  acts  are  symbolicand  closely  connected  to  any  talk  inprogress. Such non-verbal acts are part of what  is  called  ‘body  language’.

Body language is composed of all those messages  that  people  exchange beside words.

Some Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills

•Recognise that both the sender as well as the receiver have equal responsibility in making  effective communication.

•Refrain from forming an early judgment about information that is being communicated.  Be open to all ideas.

•Be a patient listener. Do not be in a hurry to respond.

•Avoid speaking ego. That is, do not talk only about what you want to talk about. Give Consideration also to others and to what they say.

•Be careful to the emotional responses which certain words are likely to bring about.

•Be aware that your posture affects your listening.

•Control distractions.

•If in doubt, try to paraphrase. Also check with the sender whether s/he has been correctly understood by you.

•Visualise what is being said. That is, try to translate the message in the form of a concrete action.

THANK YOU

ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE

 ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE

A common idea that comes out of these questions is that the relationship between human  behaviour  and  the  environment plays  a  special  role  in  our  lives.  These Days,  there  is  a  growing  awareness  that environmental  problems  such  as  noise,air,  water  and  soil  pollution,  and unsatisfactory  ways  of  garbage  disposal have damaging effects on physical health. Less known is the fact that these forms of pollution,  along  with  many  other  hidden factors  in  the  environment,  influence psychological  health  and  functioning  as well. 

 A  branch  of  psychology  called environmental  psychology  deals  with various psychological issues pertaining to human-environment  interaction  in  a very  broad  sense  of  the  term.  The  word  ‘environment’  refers  to  all that is around us, literally everything that surrounding us,  including  the  physical, social, work, and cultural environment. 

‘Ecology’ is the study of the relationships  between  living  beings  and their environment. In psychology, the focus is  on  the  interdependence  between the  environment  and  people,  as  the environment  becomes  meaningful  with reference to the human beings who live in it.  In  this  context,  a  distinction  can  be made  between  the  natural  environment and the built environment. As the name itself  suggests,  that  part  of  nature  which remains untouched by human hand is the natural  environment.  On  the  other  hand,whatever  has  been  created  by  human beings  within  the  natural  environment  is the  built  environment.  Cities,  houses,offices, factories, bridges, shopping malls,railway  tracks,  roads,  dams,  and  even artificially  created  parks  and  ponds  are some  examples  of  the  built  environment which show how human beings have made changes  in  the  environment  given  by nature.    The built environment usually involves the  concept  of  environmental  design.

                        

The  idea  of  ‘design’  contains  some psychological  features,  such  as  :-

•The  creativity  of  the  human  mind,  as expressed  in  the  work  of  architects,town  planners  and  civil  engineers.

•The  sense  of  human  control  over  the natural  environment,  as  shown  in  the building of dams to regulate the natural flow  of  rivers.

•The  influence  on  the  kind  of  social interaction  that  takes  place  in  the designed  environment.  This  feature  is reflected,  for  instance,  in  the  distance between  houses  in  a  colony,  the location of rooms within a home, or in the  arrangement  of  work  desks  and seats  in  an  office  for  formal  and informal  gatherings. 

Different Views of  the Human-Environment  Relationship

There  is  more  than  one  way  of  looking  at the  human-environment  relationship,depending largely on how this relationship is   perceived   by   human   beings. A  Psychologist  named  Stokols  (1990)describes  three  approaches  that  may  be adopted   to   describe   the   human-environment  relationship.

(a) The  minimalist  perspective  assumes that  the  physical  environment  has minimal  or  negligible  influence  on human  behaviour,  health  and  well-being.  The  physical  environment  and human  beings  exist  as  parallel components.

(b) The   instrumental   perspective suggests that the physical environment exists mainly for use by human beings for  their  comfort  and  well-being.  Most Of  the  human  influences  on  the environment  reflect  the  instrumental perspective.

(c) The spiritual perspective refers to the view  of  the  environment  as  something to be respected and valued rather than exploited. It implies that human beings recognise  the  interdependent  relation-ship  between  themselves  and  the environment,  i.e.  human  beings  will exist and will be happy only as long as the  environment  is  kept  healthy  and natural. 

The  traditional  Indian  view  about  the environment  supports  the  spiritual perspective.  We have at least two examples of this perspective in our country, viz. the customs  of  the  Bishnoi  community  of Rajasthan,  and  the  Chipko  movement  in the  Uttarakhand  region.  

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

The human-environment relationship can be appreciated fully by understanding that the two influence each other, and depend on  each  other  for  their  survival  and maintenance. When we focus our attention on  the  effects  of  the  natural  environment on  human  beings,  we  find  a  variety  of environmental  influences,  ranging  from physical  effects  such  as  a  change  of clothing in response to climate changes to severe  psychological  effects  such  as serious depression after a natural disaster. 

Some  of  the  effects  pointed  out  by psychologists  are  described  below.

•Environmental    influences    on perception:-  Some  aspects  of  the environment    influence    human perception. a  tribal  society  ofAfrica lives in circular huts, that is, in houses  without  angular  walls.  They Show less error in a geometric illusion(the  Muller-Lyer  illusion)  than  peoplefrom  cities,  who  live  in  houses  with angular  walls.

•Environmental    influences    on emotions : - The environment affects our emotional  reactions  as  well.  Watching Nature  in  any  form,  whether  it  is  a quietly flowing river, a smiling flower, or a  tranquil  mountain  top,  provides  a kind of joy that cannot be matched by any other experience. Natural disasters, such  as  floods,  droughts,  landslides,quakes  on  the  earth  or  under  the ocean,  can  affect  people’s  emotions  to such  an  extent  that  they  experience deep depression and sorrow, a sense of complete  helplessness  and  lack  of control  over  their  lives.  Such  on  human  emotions  is  a traumatic  experience  that  changespeople’s  lives  forever,  and  can  last  for a very long time after the actual event in  the  form  of  post-traumatic  stress disorder(PTSD).

• Ecological influences on occupation,living  style  and  attitudes  : 

The Natural 

environment  of  a  particular region determines whether people living in  that  region    rely  on  agriculture  (asin the plains), or on other occupations such  as  hunting  and  gathering  (as  in forest, mountainous or desert regions),or  on  industries  (as  in  areas  that  are not  fertile  enough  for  agriculture).  

• Inturn,  the  occupation  determines  the lifestyle  and  attitudes  of  the  residents of  a  particular  geographical  region.

• Compare  the  daily  routine  followed  by a  person  living  in  a  desert  with  one living  in  a  mountainous  region,  and with  one  living  on  the  plains.  It  has been  observed  that  an  agricultural society has to depend on the collective efforts  of  its  members.  

• Therefore,  the members  of  an  agricultural  society develop an attitude of cooperativeness,and  consider  group  interests  more important than the individual’s wishes.They  are  also  closer  to  nature,  more dependent  on  natural  events  such  as the monsoon, and may face situations in  which  necessary  natural  resources such  as  water  are  in  limited  supply. 

• Accordingly,  the  members  of  an agricultural  society  may  become  more fatalistic  in  their  beliefs.  On  the  other hand, highly industrialised societies feel less  close  to  and  less  dependent  on nature.  Members  of  industrialised societies  may  value  independent thinking,  develop  an  attitude  of competitiveness,  and  cultivate  a  belief of personal control over what happens to  them.

Human Influence on the Environment

         

Human beings also exert their influence on the natural environment for fulfilling their physical needs and other purposes. All the examples of the built environment express human  influence  over  the  environment. For  example,  the  human  being  started building  something  called  ‘houses’  by changing the natural environment in order to  provide  shelter  for  herself/himself. Some  of  these  human  actions  harm  and damage  the  environment,  and  ultimately harm themselves, in numerous ways.

•  For Example,  human  beings  use  appliances such  as  refrigerators  and  air conditioners that  generate  chemical  substances  (e.g.,CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons) that pollute the  air  and,  in  the  long  run,  may  be responsible  for  physical  diseases  such  as some  forms  of  cancer.  

• Smoking  is  known to  pollute  the  air  around  us,  and  the burning  of  plastic  or  metal  articles  has disastrous  polluting  effects  on  the environment.  Cutting  down  trees,  or deforestation, may disrupt the carbon cycle and  the  water  cycle.  This  may  eventually affect  the  pattern  of  rainfall  in  a  region,and    increase    soil    erosion    and desertification.  

• Industries  that  discharge effluents, and pump this untreated sewage into rivers, seem to be unconcerned about the dangerous physical and psychological consequences  of  this  kind  of  pollution.

What  is  the  psychological  message  in all of these examples? 

The message is that although  most  of  the  effects  mentioned above  are  physical  in  nature,  human beings have brought about these effects in order  to  exhibit  their  control  and  power over  the  natural  environment.  It's Somewhat paradoxical that human beings are using technology to change the natural environment  in  order  to  improve  the quality of their life but, in reality, they may actually  be  worsening  the  quality  of  life! Noise,  pollution,  crowding,  and natural  disasters  are  some  examples of   stressors,  which  are stimuli  or  conditions  in  the  environment that create stress for human beings. 

Stress is an unpleasant psychological state which creates  tension  and  anxiety  in  the individual.  However,  human  reactions  to these varying stressors may differ. 

Some of the  damaging  environmental  effects  are described  below.

Noise

Any  sound  that  is  annoying  or  irritating, and  felt  to  be  unpleasant  is  said  to  be noise.  From  common  experience  it  is known  that  noise,  especially  for  long periods of time, is uncomfortable, and puts people  in  an  unpleasant  mood.  Exposure to noise for  a long period of time may lead to hearing loss. Apart from that, noise has negative effects on mental activity because it  reduces  concentration.  Many  of  you might  have  experienced  this  when  you tried  to  study  for  your  examination,  with the neighbours celebrating a marriage with loud  music. Three  characteristics  of  noise  have been found to determine its effect on task performance, namely,     intensity, predictability,  and  controllability  of noise.

 Systematic  research  on  the  effects of  noise  on  human  beings  shows  the following  :-

•When  the  task  being  performed  is  a simple mental task, such as addition of numbers,  noise  does  not  affect  overall performance, whether it is loud or soft.In such situations, people adapt, or ‘get used’  to  noise.

•If  the  task  being  performed  is  very interesting,  then,  too,  the  presence  of noise does not affect performance.  This Is because the nature of the task helps the  individual  to  pay  full  attention  to the  task,  and  ignore  the  noise.  This may  also  be  one  kind  of  adaptation.

•When the noise comes at intervals, and in   an   unpredictable   way,   it   is experienced as more disturbing than if the  noise  is  continuously  present.

•When  the  task  being  performed  is difficult, or requires full concentration,then  intense,  unpredictable,  and uncontrollable  noise  reduces  the  level of  task  performance.

•When  tolerating  or  switching  off  the noise  is  within  the  control  of  the person,  the  number  of  errors  in  task performance  decreases.

•In  terms  of  emotional  effects,  noise above a certain level causes annoyance,and can also lead to sleep disturbance.

These  effects  are  also  reduced  if  the noise is controllable, or is necessary as a  part  of  the  person’s  occupation. However,  continued  exposure  to uncontrollable and annoying noise can have harmful effects on mental health. From  these  observations,  one  may conclude that the stressful effects of noise are determined, not only by its high or low intensity,  but  also  by  the  extent  to  which people  are  able  to  adapt  to  it,  the  nature of the task being performed, and whether noise  is  predictable  and  controllable.

Pollution Environmental  

pollution  may  be  in  the form of air, water, and soil pollution.  Waste Or garbage that comes from households or from  industries  are  a  big  source  of  air, water,  and  soil  pollution.  Scientists  know it  very  well  that  any  of  these  forms  of pollution is hazardous to physical health. However, there are some research studies that  have  shown  direct  or  indirect psychological  effects  of  these  forms  of pollution as well.  It has to be understood that in general, any form of environmental pollution  may  affect  the  nervous  system because   of   the   presence   of   toxic substances  and,  to  that  extent,  influence psychological  processes  in  some  way.

• Another  form  of  influence  is  seen  in  the emotional reactions to pollution which, in turn,  create  discomfort,  and  have consequences  such  as  decreased  work efficiency, lowered interest in the job, and an increase in anxiety level.

•   People do not like to live or work in a locality that is littered with garbage, or has a constant foul smell. Similarly, the presence of dust particles, orother  suspended  particles,  may  give  a feeling  of  suffocation  and  difficulty  inbreathing,  and  may  actually  lead  to respiratory   disorders.  

•  People   who experience  this  kind  of  discomfort  cannot pay  full  attention  to  their  work,  or  be  in a  pleasant  mood. 

• Specific  psychological  effects  of  air pollution  have  been  reported  by  some researchers.  For  example,  in  one  part  of Kolkata, the psychological reactions to air pollution were compared between a group living  in  an  industrial  area,  and  a  group living in a non-industrial residential area. Those living in the industrial area reported greater  tension  and  anxiety  than  those living in a non-industrial residential area.

• In  a  study  conducted  in  Germany,  the presence  of  pollutants  such  as  sulphur dioxide  in  the  air  was  found  to  decrease the  ability  to  concentrate  on  a  task,  and lowering  performance  efficiency.Pollution caused by leaks of dangerous chemical substances can cause other kinds of harm.  

The infamous Bhopal gas tragedy of December 1984 that claimed many lives, also  left  behind  psychological  effects because of the gas. Many of those who had inhaled  the  poisonous  gas,  methyl-isocyanate  (MIC)  along  with  other substances,  showed  disturbances  in memory,  attention  and  alertness.There  can  be  harmful  air  pollution  in the  home  and  office  environment  (indoor environments)  also.  For  example,  tobacco smoke pollution, that is, pollution through cigarette, cigar or beedi  smoking, can also cause  psychological  effects.  Such  effects are supposed to be more dangerous for the smoker; however, those who inhale tobacco smoke  (passive  smoking)  can  also  suffer the negative effects. 

One researcher found that inhaling tobacco smoke can increase the  aggression  level  of  individuals.The presence of polluting substances in water and soil are hazardous for physical health.  

Some  of  these  chemicals  can  also have  damaging  psychological  effects. 

•  The presence of specific chemicals such as lead can cause mental retardation by affecting brain development. 

• Such toxic substances affect  human  beings  through  various routes, i.e. through water, or through soil by being absorbed by vegetables grown in polluted  soil. Another source of toxicity is household and industrial waste, or garbage, which are non-biodegradable.  

• Common  examples  of such  waste  are  plastics,  tin  or  any  metal container.  This  kind  of  waste  material should  be  destroyed  or  burned  through special techniques, and the smoke should not  be  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air  that people  breathe.In  general,  there  is  sufficient  evidence to  show  that  toxic  chemicals  in  the  air, water and soil may lead to harmful effects not   only   on   normal   psychological functioning,  but  may  also  cause  serious mental  disorders.  

• Therefore,  there  is absolutely  no  doubt  that  all  forms  of pollution  need  to  be  curbed. 

• Crowding Most of us are familiar with crowds, which are  large  informal  groups  of  persons coming  together  temporarily  without  any particular  goal.  For  example,  when  a famous  person  suddenly  appears  on  the road,  people  who  are  present  in  the situation  at  the  time  often  collect  around the  scene,  just  to  watch  this  person.  

• But crowding has a different meaning. It refers to a feeling of discomfort because there are too  many  people  or  things  around  us,giving  us  the  experience  of  physical restriction,  and  sometimes  the  lack  of privacy.  Crowding is the person’s reaction to  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of persons within a particular area or space. When  this  number  goes  beyond  a  certain level, it  causes stress to individuals caught in that situation.  In this sense, crowding is  another  example  of  an  environmental stressor.

The  experience  of  crowding  has  the following  features  :-

•Feeling  of  discomfort,

•Loss  or  decrease  in  privacy

•Negative  view  of  the  space  around  the person,  and

•Feeling  of  loss  of  control  over  social interaction.

The  psychological  consequences  of crowding  in  our  country  have  been systematically  studied  by  several  Indian psychologists  in  many  Indian  cities  such as Allahabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Varanasi,and Jaipur as well as some rural areas of Rajasthan.  Some  of  these  research investigations  of  crowding  have  been conducted  in  the  psychology  laboratory, but  many  more  have  been  carried  out  in commonly  encountered  settings  such  as households,   offices,   traffic,   public transport  such  as  auto rickshaw,  cinemahalls,  etc.  

The  large  population  of  our country makes crowding much more here than  in  other  less  populated  countries.This  feature  has  prompted  some  foreign psychologists  to  study  the  effects  of crowding  in  India. It  should  be  understood  that  the experience  of  crowding  is  brought  about not merely because of the large number of persons as such, nor merely because of the shortage of space. It is related to density,that is, the number of persons within the available  space.  For  example,  if  there  are fifteen persons trying to squeeze into four seats  in  a  railway  compartment,  each person  is  likely  to  experience  crowding. Place  the  same  fifteen  persons  in  a  large hall,  and  nobody  experiences  crowding.

•Crowding leads to lowered performance on difficult tasks that involve cognitive processes,  and  has  adverse  effects  on memory and the emotional state. These negative  effects  are  seen  to  a  smaller extent  in  people  who  are  used  to crowded  surroundings.

•Children  growing  up  in  very  crowded households  show  lower  academic performance. They also show a weaker tendency to continue working on a task if they are unsuccessful at it, compared to children growing up in non-crowded households.  They  experience  great conflict with their parents, and get less support  from  their  family  members.

•The   nature   of   social   interaction determines  the  degree  to  which  an individual  will  react  to  crowding.  For Example,  if  the  interaction  is  on  a happy social occasion, such as a party or public celebration, the presence of a large  number  of  persons  in  the  same physical setting may cause no stress at all.  Rather,  it  may  lead  to  positive emotional reactions. At the same time,crowding,  in  turn,  also  influences  the nature  of  social  interaction.

•Individuals differ in the degree to which they show negative effects of crowding,and  also  in  the  nature  of  these reactions.  Two  kinds  of  tolerance  can be  mentioned  that  may  explain  these individual  differences,  i.e.  crowding tolerance and competition tolerance.Crowding  tolerance  refers  to  the ability  to  mentally  deal  with  a  high density or crowded environment, such as a crowded residence (a large number of persons within a small room). People Who  are  used  to  an  environment containing many people around them(for example, individuals growing up in a  large  family  that  lives  in  a  small house) develop more crowding tolerance than people who are used to only a few persons around them. Our country has a large population and many people live with  large  families  in  small  houses.This  might  lead  us  to  expect  thatIndians  in  general  should  have  more crowding  tolerance  than  people  from other,  less  populated  countries. Competition tolerance is the ability to put  up  with  a  situation  in  which individuals would have to compete with many  others  for  even  basic  resources,including physical space. Since there is a  greater  possibility  of  competition  for resources  in  a  crowded  setting,  the reaction  to  that  setting  would  be influenced by the extent of tolerance for competition  for  resources.

•Cultural  characteristics  may  determine the  extent  to  which  a  particular environment  is  judged  to  be  subjec-tively  more  crowded  or  less  crowded.They  may  also  affect  the  nature  and extent   of   negative   reactions   to crowding. For example, in cultures that emphasize the importance of the group or  collectivity  over  the  individual,  the presence of a large number of people in the  surroundings  is  not  taken  as  an undesirable  state.  On  the  other  hand,in  cultures  that  emphasise  the importance  of  the  individual  over  the group  or  collectivity,  the  presence  of many other persons in the environment around   us   may   make   us   uncomfortable. Overall, though, regardless of  whether  the  culture  considers  the group  more  important  than  the individual,  or  the  other  way  round,  it is clear that in all cultures, crowding is experienced  as  being  stressful.

•Personal  space,  or  the  comfortable physical  space  one  generally  likes  to maintain around oneself, is affected by a  high  density  environment.  In  a crowded  context,  there  is  a  restriction on personal space, and this can also be a  cause  of  negative  reactions  to crowding. We  find  many  examples  of  people responding to the physical environment in terms  of  space. 

In  social  situations,human  beings  like  to  maintain  a  certain physical  distance  from  the  person  withwhom they are interacting.  This is called interpersonal physical distance, and is a part  of  a  broader  concept  called  personal space,  i.e.  the  physical  space  we  like  to have  all  around  us.  One  reason  for  the negative  reactions  to  crowding,  as described  earlier,  is  the  decrease  in personal  space.  Personal  space  can  vary between  people,  between  situations  and settings,  and  between  cultures.  Some Average  distances  have  been  observed  in certain  cultures.  

Edward  Hall,  ananthropologist,  mentioned  four  kinds  of interpersonal physical distance, depending on  the  situation:

•Intimate distance (upto 18 inches) : The Distance  you  maintain  when  you're talking  privately  to  someone,  or interacting  with  a  very  close  friend  or relative.

•Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet): The  distance  you  maintain  when  you're interacting one-to-one with a close friend,  relative,  or  even  with  someone not very close to you in a work setting or  other  social  situation.

•Social  distance  (4  to  10  feet)  :  The Distance  you  maintain  when  the interaction  is  formal,  and  not  close.

Natural Disasters

Environmental  stressors  such  as  noise,various  forms  of  pollution  and  crowding are  the  result  of  human  behaviour.  By Contrast,  natural  disasters  are  stressful experiences that are the result of nature's fury, i.e. the consequence of disturbances in  the  natural  environment.  

 

•  Common Examples  of  natural  disasters  are earthquakes,  tsunamis,  floods,  cyclones,and  volcanic  eruptions.  One  finds examples  of  other  disasters  also,  such  as wars,  industrial  accidents  such  as  the leakage  of  poisonous  or  radioactive elements in industrial plants, or epidemics(e.g.,  the  plague  that  affected  some  parts of our country in 1994). 

• However, wars and epidemics  are  human-made  events, although their effects can also be as severe as those of natural disasters. These events are  called  ‘disasters’  because  they  cannot be  prevented,  usually  come  without  any warning, and result in immense damage to human lives and property. Sadly, they also lead  to  a  psychological  disorder,  called post-traumatic  stress  disorder  (PTSD). 

• Science   and   technology   have   now progressed sufficiently to make it possible for human beings to predict these events, to  some  extent.  Yet  the  psychological effects  of  natural  disasters  need  to  be understood  and  remedied.What  are  the  effects  of  natural disasters?  First,  they  leave  people poverty-stricken,  homeless,  without  any resources,  usually  along  with  a  loss  of everything  they  owned.  

• Second,  the sudden loss of all their belongings as well as  their  dear  ones  leaves  people  shocked and stunned. This is sufficient to create a deep-seated psychological disorder.

•  Natural Disasters  are  traumatic  experiences,  i.e.emotionally  wounding  and  shocking  to those  who  survive  the  disaster.  

Post-traumatic  stress  disorder  (PTSD)  is  a severe  psychological  problem  that  results from  traumatic    events  such  as  natural disasters.

This disorder  has  the  following features.

•The immediate reaction to a disaster is commonly one of disorientation.  People take  some  time  to  understand  the  full meaning of what the disaster has done to  them.  They  may  actually  deny  to themselves that something terrible has happened.  Following  the  immediate reaction  are  the  physical  reactions.

•Physical  reactions,  such  as  bodily exhaustion  even  without  physical activity, difficulty in sleeping, change in the eating pattern, increased heartbeat and blood pressure, and getting startled easily can be found among the victims.

•Emotional  reactions,  such  as  grief  and fear,  irritability,  anger  (“Why  should this  happen  to  me?”)helplessness, hopelessness  (“I  could  do  nothing  to prevent  this  event”),  depression,sometimes  absolute  lack  of  emotion(numbness),  guilt  feelings  for  having survived  while  someone  else  in  the family  died,  blaming  oneself,  and  lack of  interest  in  even  routine  activities.

•Cognitive  reactions,  such  as  worry,difficulty  in  concentration,  reduced span  of  attention,  confusion,  loss  of memory,  or  vivid  memories  that are  unwanted  (or  nightmares  of  the event).

•Social  reactions,  such  as  withdrawalfrom  others,  getting  into  conflict  with others, having frequent arguments with even loved ones, and feeling rejected or left out.  Surprisingly, very often, in the midst  of  severe  emotional  reactions  to stress,  some  survivors  may  actually help  in  the  healing  processes.  Having Been  through  the  experience,  yet survived  it  and  staying  alive,  these persons may develop a positive outlook on life and, with empathy, pass on this attitude  to  other  survivors.   These reactions may last for a long time, in  some  cases  throughout  life.  

However, with  proper  counselling  and  psychiatric treatment, PTSD can be remedied at least upto  a  level  where  the  victims  can  be motivated, and helped to start life afresh.The  poor,  women  who  have  lost  all  their relatives,  and  orphaned  children  who  are survivors of natural disasters need special treatment  and  care.  As  in  the  case  of  the other environmental stressors, people react with  different  intensities  to  natural disasters.  

In  general,  the  intensity  of reaction  is  affected  by  :-

•The severity of the disaster, and the loss incurred (both in terms of property and life),

•The individual’s general coping ability,and

•Other  stressful  experiences  before  the disaster. For example, people who have experienced  stress  before  may  find  it more  difficult  to  deal  with  yet  another difficult  and  stressful  situation.      Although  we  are  aware  that  most natural disasters can be predicted only ina  limited  way,  there  are  ways  of  being prepared  to  minimise  their  devastating consequences in the form of:-

 (a) warnings,

(b)  safety  measures  that  can  be  taken immediately   after   the   event,   and

(c)  treatment  of  psychological  disorders.

These  measures,  usually  taken  at  the community  level,  are  described  below.

•Warnings  :-  If  you  have  been  listening to  the  radio  in  the  recent  past,  you might  have  heard  advertisements  that mention  what  people  should  do  when it  is  announced  that  some  natural disaster,  such  as  a  flood,  is  likely.When  cyclones  or  high  tides  are predicted,  fishermen  are  asked  not  to venture  into  the  sea.

•Safety  measures  :-  Unfortunately,  in the case of some natural disasters such as  earthquakes,  even  if  prediction  is possible, the events come too suddenly for  people  to  be  warned  or  to  bementally  prepared.  Therefore,  tips are given beforehand  about  what  to  do when  there  is  an  earthquake.

•Treatment     of     psychological disorders:-  This  includes  self-help approaches  as  well  as  professional treatment.  Often,  the  very  first  step involves providing material relief in the form  of  food,  clothing,  medical  help,shelter, and financial help. Counselling At the individual and group level is the next  step.  This  can  take  many  forms,such  as  encouraging  the  survivors  to talk  about  their  experiences  and emotional  state,  and  giving  them  time for  their  emotional  wounds  to  heal.

According  to  some  experts  who  deal with PTSD, one of the key attitudes to be developed in the survivors is that of self-efficacy,  i.e.  the  belief  that  ‘I  can do it!’, or ‘I can come out of this phase successfully.’  Psychiatric  help  may  be needed for those showing extreme stress reactions.  Finally,  rehabilitation in  the form  of  employment  and  a  gradual return to the normal routine should be undertaken. At some stage, follow-up of the victims and survivors is also needed in  order  to  ensure  that  they  have,indeed, recovered sufficiently from their traumatic  experience.

PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR

Pro-environmental  behaviour  includes both actions that are meant to protect the environment  from  problems,  and  to promote  a  healthy  environment.

Some Promotive   actions   to   protect   the environment  from  pollution  are  :-

•Reducing  air  pollution  by  keeping vehicles in good condition, or changing to  non-fuel  driven  vehicles,  and stopping the  practice  of  smoking.

•Reducing  noise  pollution  by  ensuring that  noise  levels  are  low,  for  example,discouraging  needless  honking  on  the road,  or  making  rules  regarding  noisy music  at  certain  hours.

•Managing disposal of garbage sensibly,for example, by encouraging separation of  biodegradable  garbage  from  non-biodegradable  waste,  or  composting  of kitchen waste. These practices need to be adopted both at home and in public places. Special attention has to be paid to  the  management  of  industrial  and hospital  waste.

•Planting  trees  and  ensuring  their  care,keeping in mind that those plants and trees  should  not  be  planted  that  have adverse  health  effects.

•Saying ‘no’ to plastics in any form, thus reducing  toxic  wastes  that  pollute water,  air  and  the  soil.

•Reducing   the   non-biodegradable packaging  of  consumer  goods.

•Laws related to construction (especially in  urban  areas)  that  violate  optimal environmental  design.

 PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL CONCERNS

If  you  ask  someone  to  list  the  main problems that our society faces today, you can  be  fairly  sure  that  two  problems  will be  mentioned,  among  others  —  poverty and  violence.  Both  of  these  phenomena have noticeable effects on the physical as well  as  psychological  health  of  people.  It has  to  be  understood  that  poverty  is  not merely an economic problem, and violence is  not  merely  a  question  of  breaking  the law.  Rather,  these  problems  can  be resolved  only  if  we  examine  their psychological  causes.  Psychologists  have actively  explored  these  issues,  and  have focused  on  the  causes  and  consequences of  these  phenomena.  Each  of  these  social concerns  is  discussed  below.

Poverty and Discrimination

• Everyone agrees that poverty is a curse on society, and the more quickly we get rid of it,  the  better  it  will  be  for  society.  Some Experts define poverty mainly in economic terms, and measure it in terms of income,nutrition  (the  daily  calorie  intake  per person),  and  the  amount  spent  on  basic necessities  of  life  such  as  food,  clothing and shelter.

•  Some other indicators are also used, such as physical health and literacy. Such  measures  continue  to  be  used  in some  contexts.  However,  from  the  social and psychological points of view, economic and other physical aspects tell only a small part  of  the  story  about  poverty. 

•  From  the socio-psychological point of view, the most commonly accepted definition of poverty is that  it  is  a  condition  in  which  there  is  a lack of necessities of life in the context of unequal  distribution  of  wealth  in  society.

• Some  authors  add  that  the  sense  of deprivation and social disadvantage are additional features of poverty. A distinction between  deprivation  and  poverty  is  that deprivation  refers  to  the  state  in  which  a person feels that s/he has lost something valuable,  and  is  not  getting  something that  s/he  deserves. 

•  Poverty  refers  to  an actual shortage of the resources necessary for  living,  and  thus  can  be  somewhat objectively  defined.  In  deprivation,  it  is more  a  question  of  perceiving  or  thinking that one has got less than what one should have  got. 

•  Thus,  a  poor  person  may experience deprivation, but poverty is not a  necessary  condition  for  experiencing deprivation.  The  situation  of  the  poor  is worsened   if   they   also   experience deprivation.  In  reality,  usually  the  poor also  feel  deprived. 

• Both  poverty  and  deprivation  are linked  to  social  disadvantage,i.e.  a condition because of which some sections of society are not allowed to enjoy the same privileges  as  the  rest  of  society.  

• Social Disadvantage  poses  an  obstacle  to  the growth of these sections. In our society, the caste  system  has  been  largely  the  source of  social  disadvantage,  but  poverty, irrespective of caste, has also played a role in  creating  social  disadvantage. Further,  social  disadvantage  becauseof  caste  and  poverty  has  created  the problem of  discrimination.

• You may recall from. In the contextof  poverty,  discrimination  refers  to  thebehaviour  that  makes  a  distinction between  the  rich  and  the  poor,  favouring the rich and the advantaged over the poor and  the  disadvantaged.    

• This  distinction can be seen in matters of social interaction, education, and employment. Thus, even if the  poor  or  disadvantaged  have  the capability,  they  are  kept  away  from opportunities that are enjoyed by the rest of society. The children of the poor do not get  a  chance  to  study  in  good  schools,  forget good health facilities, and employment.

• Social  disadvantage  and  discriminationprevent  the  poor  from  improving  their socio-economic  condition  through there Own efforts, and this makes the poor evenpoorer.   

•   In     short,     poverty     anddiscrimination  are  related  in  such  a  waythat discrimination becomes both a causeand  a  consequence  of  poverty.  Clearly,discrimination  based  on  poverty  or  casteis socially unjust, and has to be removed.

• Every  society  wishes  to  do  away  with poverty.  To  proceed  in  this  direction,  it  is important  to  know  the  psychological dimensions of poverty and deprivation, and their  major  causes.

Psychological Characteristics and Effects ofPoverty and Deprivation

Considering  that  poverty  and  deprivation are  among  the  glaring  problems  of  our society, Indian social scientists, including sociologists, psychologists and economists,have  undertaken  systematic  research  on the  poor  and  deprived  sections.  Their Findings  and  observations  show  that poverty  and  deprivation  do  have  adverse effects  on  motivation,  personality,  social behaviour, cognitive processes, and mental health.

•In  terms  of  motivation,  the  poor  have low  aspirations  and  low  achievement motivation,   and   high   need   for dependence.   They   explain   their successes in terms of luck or fate rather than  ability  or  hard  work.  In  general,they  believe  that  events  in  their  lives are controlled by factors outside them,rather  than  within  them.

•With regard to personality, the poor and deprived have low self-esteem, are high on anxiety and introversion, and dwell on  the  immediate  present  rather  than being  future-oriented.  They  prefer smaller  immediate  rewards  to  larger rewards in the long run, because in their perception, the future is too uncertain.They live with a sense of hopelessness,powerlessness,  felt  injustice,  and experience  a  loss  of  identity.

•With  respect  to  social  behaviour,  the poor  and  deprived  sections  exhibit  an attitude of resentment towards the rest of  society.

•Among  the  effects  of  prolonged deprivation on cognitive functioning, ithas  been  found  that  intellectual functioning  and  performance  on tasks  (such  as  classification,  verbal reasoning,  time  perception,  and pictorial  depth  perception)  is  lower among the highly deprived compared to those who are less deprived. It has also been  clarified  that  the  effect  of deprivation is because the nature of the environment  in  which  children  grow up—  whether  it  is  enriched  or impoverished  —  makes  a  difference  in their cognitive development, and this is reflected in cognitive task performance.

• With  regard  to  mental  health,  there  is an   unquestionable   relationship between  mental  disorders  and  poverty or deprivation. The poor are more likely to suffer from specific mental illnesses compared  to  the  rich,  possibly  due  to constant   worrying   about   basic necessities,  feelings  of  insecurity,  or inability  to  get  medical  facilities,especially  for  mental  illnesses.  In  fact,it  has  been  suggested  that  depression may be a mental disorder largely of the poor.  Besides,  the  poor  experience  a sense  of  hopelessness  and  a  loss  of identity, as though they do not belong to society. As a result, they also suffer from  emotional  and  adjustment problems.

Major Causes of Poverty

Poverty  is  sometimes  caused  by  natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and cyclones,  or  man-made  disasters  such  as poisonous  gas  leaks.  When  such  events take  place,  people  suddenly  lose  all  their possessions  and  have  to  face  poverty.

Similarly, one generation of the poor may be  unable  to  eradicate  their  poverty,  and the next generation continues to remain in poverty.  Apart  from  these  causes,  other factors  responsible  for  poverty  have  been mentioned below. However, there are some differences  of  opinion  regarding  the importance  of  these  factors.

•The poor themselves are responsible for their  poverty.  According  to  this  view,the poor lack the ability and motivation to  put  in  effort,  and  make  use  of available  opportunities.  In  general,such  a  view  about  the  poor  is  rather negative,  and  does  not  help  at  all  in making  them  better.

•It  is  not  the  individual,  but  a  belief system,  a  way  of  life,  and  values,  in which she/he is brought up, that is the cause  of  poverty.  This  belief  system,called  the  ‘culture  of  poverty’,convinces  the  person  that  she/he  will continue to remain poor, and the belief is  carried  over  from  one  generation  of the  poor  to  the  next.

•Economic,  social  and  political  factors together  account  for  poverty.  Becauseof  discrimination,  certain  sections  ofsociety  are  denied  the  opportunitiesneeded  for  getting  even  the  basicnecessities of life. The economic system is  made  to  grow  in  a  disproportionate way,  through  social  and  political exploitation, so that the poor are left out of  the  race.  All  these  factors  can  besummed  up  in  the  idea  of  socialdisadvantage, because of which the poorexperience social injustice, deprivation, discrimination,  and  exclusion.

•The  geographic  region  in  which  onelives is said to be a significant cause of poverty.  For  example,  people  living  in regions  (such  as  deserts)  that  have  a shortage  of  natural  resources  and  a harsh climate (such as extreme heat or cold)  end  up  being  poor.  This  factor cannot be controlled by human beings.However, attempts can be made to help people  in  such  regions  to  find alternative means of livelihood, and to provide  special  facilities  for  their education  and  employment.

The poverty cycle is another important cause  of  poverty  that  explains  why poverty  tends  to  continue  among  the same sections of society. Poverty begets poverty.  Beginning  with  a  low  income and  lack  of  resources,  the  poor  go through low health and nutrition, lack of  education,  and  lack  of  skills.  This Leads to low employment opportunities,which,  in  turn,  continue  their  low income  condition,  and  low  health  and nutrition status. The resulting lowered motivational  level  only  makes  the situation  worse;  the  cycle  starts  and continues again. Thus, the poverty cycle involves  an  interaction  between  the factors mentioned above, and results in declining  individual  motivation,  hope,and  sense  of  control.The  only  way  to  tackle  the  problems associated with poverty and deprivation is to  work  actively  as  well  as  earnestly towards  the  removal  or  reduction  of poverty.  Some  measures  in  that  direction are  described  below.

Measures for Poverty Alleviation

Several  steps  are  being  taken  by  the government  and  other  groups  to  work towards alleviation or reduction of poverty and  its  negative  consequences.

•Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping the  poor  to  attain  self-sufficiency  —Initially,  financial  relief,  medical  and other facilities may have to be provided to the poor. Care should be taken to see that this financial and other help doesn't make the poor dependent on these sources  for  their  livelihood.

•Creating a context for making the poor take responsibility instead of blame for their poverty — This step will help them to  regain  a  sense  of  hope,  control  and identity.

•Providing educational and employment opportunities,  following  the  principles of  social  justice  —  This  step  may  help the poor to discover their own abilities and skills, thus enabling them to come up  to  the  level  of  other  sections  of society.  This will also help in reducing crime  and  violence  by  reducing frustration,  and  by  encouraging  the poor  to  earn  their  livelihood  through legal  rather  than  illegal  means.

•Measures for improved mental health—Many   of   the   poverty   reduction measures help to improve the physical health  of  the  poor,  but  their  mental health  still  remains  a  problem  to  be tackled  effectively.  With  greater awareness of this problem, it is hoped that more attention will be paid to this aspect  of  poverty.

•Steps  for  empowering  the  poor  —Through  the  measures  mentioned above,  the  poor  should  be  made  more powerful,  capable  of  living  indepen-dently  and  with  dignity,  without depending  on  the  help  given  by  the government  or  other  groups.      The  concept  of  ‘Antyodaya’,  or  the  rise of  the  ‘last  person’  in  society,  i.e.  the poorest of  the  most  disadvantaged,  has helped  a  large  section  of  the  poor  to  get uplifted  to  a  better  economic  conditions than they have experienced earlier. Under Antyodaya programmes, there is provision for  health  facilities,  nutrition,  education and  training  for  employment  —  all  the areas  in  which  the  poor  need  help.  Many Of  these  programmes  are  more  active  in rural  than  in  urban  regions,  as  the  rural poor  have  even  fewer  facilities  than  the urban  poor.  In  addition,  the  poor  are encouraged  to  start  their  own  small-scale businesses. Initial capital for these venture is provided through small loans or micro-credit facilities. This facility is similar to the idea of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Following  the  73rd  amendment  of  theConstitution, the aim is to give more power to  people  for  their  development  through decentralised  planning,  and  through people's  participation. 

ActionAid,  an international group dedicated to the cause of  the  poor,  has  goals  of  making  the  poor more  sensitive  to  their  rights,  to  equality and  justice,  and  ensuring  for  them adequate nutrition, health, and facilities for education  and  employment.  The  Indian Branch  of  this  organisation  has  been working  for  poverty  alleviation  in  ourcountry.These measures cannot be expected to have magical effects in a short time. But,if these efforts towards poverty alleviation are continued in the right spirit and right direction,  we  may  see  positive  results  in the  very  near  future.

Aggression, Violence and Peace 

Aggression  and  violence  are  among  the major problems in today’s society, and theycover  a  wide  range  of  behaviours  —  fromragging  of  newcomers  in  educational institutes,  through  child  abuse,  domestic violence,  murder  and  rape,  to  riots  and terrorist  attacks.

• Psychologists use the term 'aggression' to  refer  to  any  behaviour  by  one  person/persons that is intended to cause harm to another  person/persons.  It  can  be demonstrated in actual action or through the use of harsh words or criticism, or even hostile  feelings  against  others. 

•  Forceful Destructive  behaviour  towards  another person or object is described as violence. 

• Some psychologists distinguish aggression from  violence  by  pointing  out  that aggressive behaviour involves the intention to harm or injure another person, whereas violence  may  or  may  not  involve  such  an intention.   

Causes of Aggression

Social  psychologists  have  explored  the issue  of  aggression  for  several  years,  and have  come  up  with  the  following  views about  the  causes  of  aggression.

1.Inborn tendency :- Aggressiveness  is an inborn tendency among human beings(as  it  is  in  animals).  Biologically,  this inborn tendency may be meant for self-defence.

2.Physiological  mechanisms  :-  Aggression Could  also  be  indirectly  triggered  by physiological mechanisms, especially by the  activation  of  certain  parts  of  the brain  that  play  a  role  in  emotional experience.    A  general  physiological state  of  arousal,  or  feeling  activated,might often be expressed in the form of aggression.  There  could  be  several factors  that  cause  arousal.

3.Child-rearing :- The way an individual is brought  up  often  influences  her/his aggressiveness.  For  example,  children whose  parents  use  physical  punish-ment end up becoming more aggressive than children whose parents use other disciplinary  techniques.  This  could  be because the parent has set an example of aggressive behaviour, which the child imitates.  It  could  also  be  because physical  punishment  makes  the  child angry and resentful; as the child grows up, s/he expresses this anger through aggressive  behaviour.

4.Frustration   :-   Aggression   is   an expression,   and   consequence   of frustration, i.e. an emotional state that arises when a person is prevented from reaching  a  goal,  or  attaining  an  object that  s/he  wants.  The  person  may  be very close to the goal, and yet does not attain it. It has been found that peoplein  frustrated  situations  show  more aggression  than  those  who  are  not frustrated.  

American  psychologist John Dollard, along  with  his  collaborators,conducted research specifically to examine the  frustration-aggression  theory.  

Thistheory  proposes  that  it  is  frustration  that leads to aggression. As expected, frustrated persons did demonstrate more aggressive than  non-frustrated  persons.    Moreover,such aggression was often shown towards a  weaker  person  who  was  unlikely,or  unable,  to  react  to  the  aggression.This  phenomenon  has  been  called displacement.  Often  it  is  observed  that members  of  a  majority  group  in  society may  be  prejudiced  against members  of  a  minority  group,  and  may show  aggressive  behaviour  towards  a minority  group  member,  such  as  using abusive  language,  or  even  physically assaulting  the  minority  group  member.

This may be a case of displaced aggression arising  out  of  frustration.

Later  on,  as  more  information  was gathered  about  the  causes  of  aggression,it became clear that frustration is not the only, or even a major cause of aggression.Observations  showed  that 

 (i)  beingfrustrated  does  not  necessarily  make  aperson  aggressive,  and  

(ii)  many  othersituational factors may lead to aggression.

Some  of  these  situational  factors  aredescribed  below.

•Learning  :-  Among  human  beings,aggression  is  largely  the  result  of learning  rather  than  an  expression  of an  inborn  tendency.  Learning  ofaggression can take place in more thanone  mode.  Individuals  may  exhibitaggression because they have found itrewarding   (for   example,   hostileaggression allows the aggressive personto get what s/he wants). This would bea  case  of  learning  through  directreinforcement.  Individuals also learn tobe  aggressive  by  observing  othersshowing  aggression.  This  is  a  case  oflearning  through  modelling.

•Observing  an  aggressive  model  : - Many Research   studies   conducted   by psychologists  such  as  Albert  Banduraand  his  collaborators  showed  the  role  of modelling  in  learning  aggression.  If  achild observes aggression and violenceon television, s/he may start imitatingthat behaviour. Without doubt violenceand aggression shown on television andthe  film  media  have  a  powerfulinfluence on the viewers, especially thechildren.  

Health

Our understanding about health and well-being  has  undergone  a  major  change  in recent  times.  It  is  now  conceded  that various  health  outcomes  are  not  only  a function  of  disease  but  the  way  we  think and  behave.  This  finds  reflection  in  the definition of ‘health’ provided by the World Health  Organisation  (WHO),  which includes  biological,  psychological  and social aspects of health.

 It focuses not only on  physical  but  also  on  mental  and spiritual aspects of health. We will concern ourselves  with  physical  health  in  this section  as  you  have  already  read  about mental  health  in  the  previous  chapters.

Health  and  illness  are  a  matter  of degree.  One  may  be  suffering  from  a physically  disabling  disease  but  may  be quite healthy otherwise. 

On the contrary, the Western cultures view health as  a  result  of a fully  functioning  machine which  has  no  blockage.  The  different systems of medicine developed in different cultures are based on these models. 

There Is another fact that you may want to know.The  World  Health  Reports  by  the  WHO show that in developing countries such as in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Latin  America,  more people  die  due  to  communicable  diseases including  HIV/AIDS,  tuberculosis  (TB),malaria,  respiratory  infections,  and nutritional  deficiencies.  In  the  developed countries,  the  leading  causes  are  various cardiovascular  diseases,  cancers,  and psychiatric disorders.

 Such differences may be explained in terms of how these societies are  economically  and  socially  structured and  their  psychological  underpinnings. At  the  individual  level,  psychologists point  to  various  factors  such  as  health-related cognitions including attitudes and beliefs, behaviours and social factors which are associated with physical well-being or illness.

(a)Cognitions  :  You  may  have  observed how some people are quick to seek doctor's help  while  others  do  not  if  they  are suffering from such symptoms as nausea, cold,  diarrhoea,  smallpox,  etc.  The Variations  in  seeking  help  are  due  to differences  in  mental  representations people make relating to disease, its severity and  the  causes  of  disease.  One  may  not seek  doctor’s  help  for  a  cold  if  one attributes  it  to  eating  curd  or  for  leprosy or smallpox if these are attributed to God's Annoyance.

The  level  of  awareness  or  information about disease; and beliefs about how it's caused;  and  about  possible  ways  of relieving  the  distress  or  improving  health affect  help  seeking  behaviour  as  well  as sticking  to  a  doctor’s  regimen.  Another Factor  which  influences  our  help-seeking from  a  doctor  is  the  perception  of  pain,which is a function of personality, anxiety and  social  norms.

Behaviour  :  Psychologists  have  found strong  evidence  which  shows  that behaviours we engage in and our lifestyle greatly  influence  health.  People  differ greatly  in  terms  of  such  behavioural  risk factors as smoking or tobacco use, alcohol and  drug  abuse,  and  unsafe  sexualbehaviour, diet and physical exercise. It is well  accepted  now  that  such  behaviors are  associated  with  incidence  of  coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer, and HIV/AIDSvbesides  many  other  diseases.  

A  new discipline called Behaviour Medicine has emerged,  which  seeks  to  alleviate  stress due  to  diseases  through  modification  in behaviour.

(c)Social and cultural factors :- There is now  a  growing  body  of  research  which shows that social and cultural differences may influence our physiological responses,and  may  not  be  the  same  across  all cultures.  For  instance,  the  relationship between  hostility  and  anger  and  CHD  is not  found  to  be  the  same  in  all  cultures,(e.g., in India and China). While interaction between   culture   and   physiological responses  requires  more  evidence,  social and cultural norms associated with roles,and  gender,  etc.  greatly  influence  our health  behaviour.  In  Indian  society,medical  advice  by  or  for  a  female  is  often delayed because of various reasons — they are  less  valued,  or  because  of  the  belief that  they  are  hardy,  or  the  shame associated  with  the  disease. 

Impact of Television on Behaviour

There is no doubt that television has been a useful product of technological progress. However, from the point of its psychological impact on human beings, both positive and negative effects have been observed.  Many Research  studies  have  inquired  into  the effects  of  television  viewing  on  cognitive processes and social behaviour, especially in  Western  cultures.  Their  findings  show a mixed  impact.  Most  of  the  research studies have been carried out on children because  they  are  seen  as  being  more vulnerable to the impact of television thanadults.

• First, television provides a large amount of infotainment in an attractive form, and in the visual mode, for which it became a powerful  medium  of  instruction.  At  the same  time,  because  the  programmes  are attractive, children spend huge amounts of time  watching  them.  This  reduces  their habit of reading and writing, and also their outdoor  activities  such  as  playing.

• Second,  television  watching  may  have an   effect   on   children’s   ability   to concentrate  on  one  target,  their  creativity and  ability  to  understand,  and  also  their social interactions. On one hand, there are excellent  programmes  that  emphasise positive interpersonal attitudes and provide useful  factual  information,  teaching children  how  to  design  and  construct certain  objects.  On  the  other  hand,  these programmes  may  distract  young  viewers and  interfere  with  their  ability  to concentrate  on  one  target.

• Third,  about  forty  years  ago  a  serious debate was raised in the USA and Canada Regarding the effect of television viewing on aggressiveness  and  violence  among  the viewers,  especially  children. 

 As  discussed earlier  in  the  context  of  aggression,  the results  of  research  showed  that  watching violence  on  television  was,  indeed,  linked to greater aggressiveness in the viewers. If The  viewers  were  children,  they  tended  to imitate  what  they  saw;  they  were  not mature   enough   to   think   of   the consequences of such behaviour.  However,some other studies pointed out that merely watching  violence  on television  does not make children more aggressive. Other Factors need to be present in the situation.Other  research  findings  show  that watching violence may actually reduce the natural aggressive tendency of the viewers:what is ‘bottled up’ gets an outlet, and thus cleans the system, like a choked drain pipe being  cleaned.  This  process  is  called catharsis.

• Fourth, in the case of adults as well as children,  it  is  said  that  a  consumerist attitude has developed, and this is due to television  watching.  Numerous  products are advertised, and it is very natural for the viewer  to  get  carried  away.No  matter  how  these  results  are interpreted,  there  seems  to  be  sufficient evidence  to  pose  a  warning  to  unlimited television  watching.

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